SOIL AND WATER RESOURCES
Agricultural inputs and land use
Soil Fertility
Soils of the Ethiopian highlands are the outcome of the decomposition
of the volcanic material. They are derived from lava rocks, are clayey
in texture and are basically quite fertile. However, growing population
pressure, increasing number of livestock and the failure to return organic
mater to the soil, have reduced soil fertility. Because of severe shortage
of fuel wood both straw and manure are used as fuel rather than returned
to the soil. The soils in the north, mainly Tigray, Wello, and northern
and eastern Gonder and northern Shoa are heavily eroded. Consequently,
intensification is the major option available to increase production, and
this inevitably means an increase in the use of inorganic fertilizers (FAO,1992).
Use of Fertilizers
Fertilizer was first introduced to Ethiopia in 1967 following four years of trial carried out by the government with the assistance from FAO's Freedom from Hunger Campaign. Fertilizer consumption by the peasant sector rose from 14,000 MT in 1974/75 to 50,000 MT in 1979/80. Annual consumption is reported to have surpassed 200,000 MT by 1993/94 Over 80 per cent of the fertilizer is applied to cereals and 45 to 50 per cent of this is estimated to be used on the major staple, teff, with the remainder being applied on wheat, barley, maize and sorghum. Coffee, despite its importance as the major export crop, receives very little fertilizer. Shoa, Gojam and Arsi regions account for over 75 per cent of the total fertilizer consumed by the peasant sector. But even in these regions only about one-third of the farmers apply fertilizer and their rate of application is much lower (less than 50kg/ha) than the recommended rate (which is 150 kg/ha).
A more comprehensive recommendation for each region, major cereals and soil type has been developed based on the on-farm trials conducted by the FAO assisted National Fertilizer and Inputs Unit (NFIU) in cooperation with the MOA. For instance, the rate for teff on vertisols in Shoa zone is 140 kg DAP and 120 kg urea. This represent a total of 260 kg fertilizer which is 73 percent more than the old fertilizer recommendation rate.
The use of fertilizer by state farms have been significant, peaking
at almost 30,000 MT in 1986/87. Fertilizer rates of application are also
much higher on state farms (over 130 kg/ha) than peasant farms. In recent
years fertilizer usage in the state farm sector has declined significantly
owing to the contraction of cultivated land. The sugar enterprises also
import fertilizer for their plantations.
Soil Management Practices
Peasant producers in Ethiopia have largely treated the soils as a resource to be mined, not as a conservable resource to be conserved. In the past, when land was plentiful, fallowing was a common practice to recover soil fertility. But population pressure made the practice impossible. Crop rotation is widely practiced but it has not been sufficient to reverse the rapidly declining soil fertility.
A major constraint to retaining soil fertility in Ethiopia is the
failure to return crop residues and animal manure to the soil. Because
of massive deforestation and the absence of tree planting practices, manure
has become a major source of fuel in most parts of the country. It is estimated
that about 90 per cent of the animal manure is used as fuel. Crop residues
constitute about 70 per cent of the livestock feeds during the dry season.
Straw is also used as fuel and building material.
Irrigation
The share of irrigated land in the total arable and permanent cropland is less than 1 per cent in Ethiopia, compared to the African average of more than 15 per cent. It is estimated that only about 75,000 ha of land is under irrigation. Most of this area is in the Awash Valley and it is cultivated by large-scale state farms. Peasant irrigation is thought to cover less than 10,000 ha of land (ONCCP/FAO, 1990).
The spells of drought over the last two decades have increased interest
in irrigation development. Irrigated agriculture has been expanding in
many of the major river basins (e.g Wabi-Shebelle and Genale Rivers) and
the Rift valley Lakes (e.g. Ziway Lake).
Land use Planning
Figures of land use in Ethiopia are quite divergent. The absence of cadastral survey is the major reason for the variation. In recent years, attempts to exclude Eritrea from land use data has contributed to the inconsistency between sources.
According to the MNRDEP, the total land area is estimated at 111.5 million hectare (excluding Eritrea) of which 14.8 per cent or 16.5 million hectare is under cultivation. Grazing & browsing land constitute some 56.9 million hectares or 51 per cent of the total land surface. It is estimated that forest, shrubs, etc. account for 11.7 per cent, currently unproductive land 3.8 per cent, and currently unutilizable wasteland 18.7 per cent. By contrast, FAO estimates (includes Eritrea) indicate that 13.9 million hectares of land (11.4%) is under cultivation and 45.0 million (36.8%) is used for grazing and browsing. The estimates of cultivable land by FAO are significantly smaller than the estimates by MNRDEP that in fact are adjusted for Eritrea. FAO's estimates of forest Shrubs, etc (at 27.2 million ha) and currently unproductive land (36.1), on the other hand, are much higher than the figures provided by MNRDEP
The estimate provided by the Central Statistical Authority (CSA) is on the low side, with only 5.53 million ha of land under annual crops in any one year (excluding Eretrea and Tigray) during the period 1980/81 - 1991/92. Based on the assumption that the proportion of land under permanent crops (fruit trees and trees used for beverages such as coffee and tea) is only 5.3 per cent of the total cultivated area, an additional 0.31 million ha of land under permanent crops. This gives a total cultivated area (both temporary and perennial) of 5.84 million ha, according to the CSA reports
The opportunities for opening up large new area are mostly confined to the sparsely populated areas of the western and southeastern highlands and their associated valleys. In the west, in particular, there is 100 km wide strip of fertile land stretching from Gambella, bordering Sudan in the high potential perennial zone (HPPZ), to northern tip, including Gojam in the high potential cereal zone (HPCZ). There is also some scope for migration into the lowlands for irrigated farming (FAO, 1986). But migration and resettlement schemes are costly and politically sensitive issues. The attitude of the natives in the hosting sites has not been positive towards settlers or migrants in the past.
As much of the land in high potential cereal zone (HPCZ) is already under cultivation and resettlement is not a feasible option, at least in short-run, increased crop production calls for intensification measures (higher yield per unit area) in these areas. Increased use of fertilizers is considered to be one of the best means of intensification. Moreover, agricultural diversification offers an important means of moving into high-value crops and raising household income.
A serious problem in planning agricultural development in Ethiopia
is lack of accurate information on land resources of the country. No reliable
information exists on the extent of new land that can be brought under
cultivation. There is an immediate need for agricultural census to determine
such things as cultivated area, output and yield of major crops, livestock
numbers and land use potentials. The resolution to the tenure and fragmentation
problems also calls for generating more reliable information through cadastral
survey.
Land tenure system
Different types of land tenure prevailed in Ethiopia in the pre-1975 period. There was the communal system (~ system) of the north which allowed most peasants to have access to land. Claims to land were hereditary and all descendants were entitled to a share in the community's land holding. Members of the community got their share of land through periodic redistribution, resulting in fragmentation and ownership insecurity. Private ownership of land in the south was characterized by absentee landlordism and crop-sharing tenancy and it was found in the south and south-western part of the country (Dejene and Teferi. 1994).
The 1975 land reform legislation of the former Government made all ruml lands public property and prohibited private ownership of land by individuals and organisations. It gave peasants usufructuary right over the land they cultivate. Every one above the age 18 was given the right to claim land, resulting in frequent redistribution of land with diminishing farm size. Farmers were not allowed to cultivate outside the peasant association (PA) in which they are residing. The land reform provided for the establishment of PAs, organized on area of 800 hectares with about 300 households. The PAs were given a wide terms of reference including the right to allocate land to members, adjudicate in disputes, promote a ranze of social and economic service.
The TGE intends to maintain state ownership of land. But the new policy has recognized the right of small farmers to bequeath to heirs their usufructuary right in land and has put a stop to redistribution of land by PA leaders. A national referendum is to be held (after the General Election) on whether the land should remain under public ownership or given as a free-hold private property. However, the Constitutition (endorsed in December 1994) explicity states that "all rural and urban land and natural resources belong to the government and the people, and land shall not be sold or exchanged". ______________________
13 CSA, Report on Cropland Utilisation: Agricultural Sample Survev 1988/89, Statistical Bulletin No. 118, Addis Ababa, June 1993,