Earth & Enviromental Science Senior Research Conference 2004 ABSTRACTS CHILDHOOD LEAD POISONING IN PHILADELPHIA: REDUCING EXPOSURE THROUGH STRATEGIC ABATEMENT Lauren Carter Majors: Environmental Studies and Urban Studies Millions of children throughout the United States are plagued with lead poisoning and its physical and mental health effects. Mayor Street called lead poisoning "the nation's leading environmental health threat" in 2003 and claimed that 600 of Philadelphia's children are diagnosed with the disease each year. He proposed to take action to get the lead out of the environment and increase education about exposure and prevention. Creating a citywide plan to remove lead is a difficult task, however, the financial benefits for the city and individual families and the ease of knowing that the children are safe put this challenge in the foreground of Philadelphia's public health scene. A strategic abatement plan requires researchers and the city to measure the levels of risk for lead poisoning throughout the city. It would be most effective to start abating lead-based paint in the homes where the people are at the highest risk for exposure. This research uses blood lead levels, number of children, age of the housing, and income data in order to assess which census tracts and neighborhoods in the city are at the highest risk. Through Geographic Information Systems (GIS), all this data comes together to display a range of highest to lowest risk throughout the city, allowing conclusions to be made about where to begin with the city-wide abatement efforts. The citywide plan for abatement of lead paint is one that needs to be taken seriously. Children across the country are at a disadvantage physically and mentally to their peers and are suffering daily because of a toxin introduced into the environment in the late 1800s by manufacturers. It is the responsibility of the city and the nation to take hold of this problem and to assist the millions of children who are affected today, and to prevent any more from ever contracting the disease. Philadelphia can use a strategic and effective abatement plan and take a step forward, leading the nation in the elimination of our largest environmental health threat. BACK CASE STUDY - HONG KONG: WILL SOMEONE PLEASE TURN OFF THE NOISE? Anca Chung Majors: Environmental Studies and Communications Noise can be defined as an unwanted sound. While pollution control in Hong Kong in the past focused much on air, waste and water, noise pollution control is becoming a greater concern. With a land area of 1,101square kilometers (2002) and a population of 6.8 million people (2002), population density in the city areas (Hong Kong Island and Kowloon) averages 16,290 and 43,220 persons per square kilometer. In such a densely populated city, likewise in many metropolitan cities, noise pollution becomes a huge problem. Noise pollution has many negative effects. It can cause nervousness, hypertension and may affect the digestive system. It may prevent people from sleeping or concentrating. It can damage hearing temporarily or even permanently. In a fast-paced world such as ours today, noise pollution causes even greater stress on everyone. Sources of noise pollution in Hong Kong include constant construction, demolition and renovation; traffic, which includes horns and engine sounds; the taking off, landing and machinery noises of aircraft; industrial activities; domestic noises such as alarm clocks, radios/TV and ventilation systems; open air activities, vessel activities along the coastal areas and harbor and many more. Poor urban design in the past, great growth in economic activity in the 1980s and 1990s and the lack of land and thus cramped space further exacerbates this problem. Many measures for controlling noise pollution in Hong Kong have been imposed. The government, more specifically, the environmental protection department and labor department have implemented a noise control ordinance and a factories and industrial undertaking ordinance in an attempt to mitigate the effects of noise on the population. Active noise control (where noise is fought with noise), noise barriers, screening structures and housing designs etc. have been utilized to abate various noises. Reducing noise at the noise source, such as vehicle design rules, noise absorption roads, and traffic control etc. have also been investigated and implemented. Although many of these controls have been proven successful, as Hong Kong's population density gradually increases, an increased amount of noise generated by the population and human activity will take place. The population exposed to excessive noise will then sharply rise, where current noise pollution controls may be insufficient. A look into what other cities in the world have used to control noise pollution may help Hong Kong with further noise control. BACK FOSTERING ACTION THROUGH EDUCATION: THE CREATION OF A CHILDREN'S WETLANDS EDUCATION CURRICULUM FOR THE MORRIS ARBORETUM OF THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA Margaret Connolly Majors: Environmental Studies and Biology Environmental education blurs the boundaries between communication and education. Focusing the efforts of a community around local environmental issues allow individuals to take active, practical roles in addressing environmental concerns. Practical active learning and participation in local environments inspires a sense of ownership and responsibility for natural resources and gives community members the knowledge and skills necessary to address environmental problems. Through innovative and effective environmental education programs, students are challenged and inspired to become stewards of the environment rather than passive observers of it. A Children's Wetlands Education curriculum, designed for the Morris Arboretum of the University of Pennsylvania, aims to educate fourth, fifth, and sixth-graders about the characteristics and functions of wetlands, wetland flora and fauna, and the interactions between humans and wetlands. By the end of the program, students will have the knowledge and resources necessary to explore and protect local wetlands, thus transforming into active stewards of the environment. . BACK ADVANCING CAMPUS-COMMUNITY ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PARTNERSHIPS Mei Elansary Majors: Environmental Studies and Biological Basis of Behavior The West Philadelphia community is disproportionately faced with a broad range of conditions including asthma, cardiovascular disease, hypertension, lead poisoning, HIV-AIDS, diabetes, and violence. Research has shown that community-based strategies can achieve the most effective results in addressing these conditions, which require a more comprehensive view of health and illness. The University of Pennsylvania is engaged in several community-based health education/health promotion activities in West Philadelphia, many of which take the form of service-learning initiatives in courses across undergraduate and graduate schools. Several of the community-academic partnerships involve health promotion activities at local public schools. This paper focuses on a lead poisoning education partnership rooted in an undergraduate academically-based community service entitled, "The Urban Environment." Penn students learn about the epidemiology of lead poisoning, pathways of exposure, and the methods of community outreach and education. The undergraduates work with local public schools to design and implement a lead poisoning education program that aims to engage West Philadelphia middle school students in exercises that apply environmental research related to lead poisoning to their homes and neighborhoods. The middle school students are part of an economically disadvantaged, underserved, urban African American population in West Philadelphia especially at risk because of lead in the environment. Lead poisoning is the most common, chemically related, environmental child health problem and is especially pronounced in urban, economically disadvantaged sections of the population. This partnership thus reflects a global environmental justice movement that has developed over the last few decades to challenge the disproportionate burden that environmental degradation and pollution have had on the health and well-being of communities of color and low-income communities. This work describes the design and implementation of an evaluation of this environmental health partnership. The project was designed to determine efficacy of the partnership, improve how the projects deliver services, and highlight opportunities for program growth. . BACK RURAL SANITATION AND THE RESIDENTIAL INDUSTRY Jason Glick Majors: Environmental Studies and English The residential camping industry has been a fixture in children's lives for longer than the boom in camping construction, which occurred following the Second World War. Due to the high costs of entry and the strong competition from older, more established camps, most respected summer camps are older than fifty years. What makes the antiquity of these camps of interest is that their septic facilities are usually old as well. Since almost all summer camps must manage their own waste on site, it is very important that a summer camp not only have a well operating septic system, but also understands how to manage and care for it. The proper management of septic systems in the rural setting as it pertains to residential summer camps is essential, as is the design of such systems. There exists a problem, however, where many of the best summer camps fail to meet the appropriate standards of septic management. This paper will discuss how a newer septic system would differ from the older systems found at the majority of residential camps while also making it clear how a premier septic system should be managed. BACK ENVIRONMENTALLY BLIGHTED COMMUNITIES AND THE QUEST FOR ANSWERS: A CASE STUDY OF THE WATERFRONT, SOUTH CAMDEN, NEW JERSEY Kathleen Huang Majors: Environmental Studies and Urban Studies Using a past study that investigated litigation and the environmental justice movement as the impetus for further study, this thesis attempts to answer the question, "How does an urban community become extremely environmentally blighted?" Analyzing the area known as Waterfront South in Camden, New Jersey as a case study, three sub-questions are addressed to shed light on this topic: how has pollution accumulated in this concentrated area, what has been the role of the government, and what have been the research and policy shortcomings that must be changed to make progress toward a more equitable situation in the future? The primary data utilized are air quality and health statistical data, in-depth interviews of prominent figures involved with the rehabilitation of the Waterfront South community (both on the community-activism and the governmental-agency side), and a first hand examination of a government funded pilot project that has been initiated in the area. In terms of secondary sources, academic literature on both air pollution and environmental justice provided the basis for the literature review. There are a number of communities, overwhelmingly minority and low-income neighborhoods, that are comparable to Waterfront South. How have they gotten to the blighted environmental state they are in and what measures are being taken to ameliorate the problem?. BACK THE WILDERNESS DIVIDE: AN EXAMINATION OF THE RHETORIC USED TO DEFINE AMERICAN WILDERNESS Lauren Karp Majors: Environmental Studies and Communications During the last half-century, the wilderness debate has cycled through rhetorical trends. Initially, romantically based, experiential rhetoric served as the default vocabulary for matters of nature. Such language idealized nature and facilitated the success of the Eastern Wilderness Act of 1974. In less than five years, Congress agreed to expand land preservation into the more populated areas east of the 100th meridian. The romantic wilderness ideal fostered an environmental ethic that connected people to land and provided validation for the preservation of open spaces. Inspired by emotion, recreational opportunities, and moral duty, citizens and policymakers defended wilderness in experiential terms. Their shrewd rhetorical choices promoted an environmentally beneficial progression in the debate and minimized disparity between pro- and anti-preservationists. Toward the latter part of the twentieth century, the wilderness ideal yielded to the growing popularity of empiricism. Cost benefit analyses and environmental impact statements flooded Capitol Hill. The rise of empiricism diminished the quality and quickness of environmental policy decisions. The spotted owl controversy and the ANWR debates were prolonged affairs that temporarily ended with weak resolutions, only to be readdressed at a later time. Numerical one-upping and over specification contributed to inefficient discussion, maintained polarity, and degraded the perceived importance of nature. Through the examination and comparison of the rhetoric used during these three wilderness policy episodes—The Eastern Wilderness Act of 1974, the spotted owl controversy, and the ANWR debates—this paper attempts to identify an optimal language for reaching prudent and timely policy decisions. BACK ENVIRONMENTAL JUSTICE & THE INNER CITY Luqman Kolade Major: Environmental Studies with African American Studies Concentration Many of the adverse health and social conditions of the inner city in general and minorities, especially Blacks, in particular are due to environmental racism and a lack of environmental justice. Historically there have been numerous environmental problems that have afflicted minority communities and because of their socioeconomic status, many of these problems have gone unnoticed by most of society. What many fail to realize is that a number of these environmental problems play a huge part in the social problems that affect minorities and the inner city. The environment has played a large role in the development and makeup of the inner city. When combined with the social issues of minorities, the neglect of the environment has led to an extremely dismal situation for many of the minorities that live in the city. When it comes to the inner city, all issues, both environmental and social are very much related and they all interact with each other. BACK MORPHOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF LEAF DEVELOPMENT IN TWO GROUPS OF CARBONIFEROUS PLANTS Andrew Leslie Majors: Geology and Biochemistry Recent discoveries in plant genetics and developmental biology have revolutionized models of plant growth. Many of the genetic events that characterize leaf and flower formation have been pinpointed, providing important insights into the timing and mechanisms of plant development. Models based on these discoveries have been successful in explaining many of the features associated with development, especially leaf morphogenesis. Interpreting the fossil record in light of these results is an interesting combination of paleontology and developmental biology, and the extensive plant record makes this possible. We investigated the fossil record for significant morphological traits that could indicate the usefulness, despite widespread convergence in plant forms, of linking fossil morphologies to underlying developmental systems determined in extant plants. In order to undertake this study, I have collected specimens of two Carboniferous plant groups for analysis: medullosan pteridosperms and filicopsids. These two unrelated plant groups developed similar foliage (large compound leaves) and lived in similar environments, but exhibit significant differences in the morphology of leaf development. A morphological analysis of the compound leaf tip in both groups shows that significant differences between them do exist, despite convergence on a similar overall form. This indicates that general morphology can be a useful guide to determining developmental systems in ancient plants. BACK THE EFFECT OF REGIONAL ENVIRONMENT ON GLOBAL CRANIAL VARIATION Jason Lewis Majors: Environmental Studies and Anthropology Cranial capacity has long been held to be a key parameter in understanding the mode and tempo of hominid evolution. Accurate and reliable cranial capacity measurements allow researchers to compare fossil specimens to one another and to modern human populations to try to tease out the relationship between brain size and human evolution. Much work has been done in paleoanthropology on understanding how hominid cranial capacity, and therefore brain size, has changed over time. The generally accepted notion is that cranial capacity has increased continuously throughout hominid evolution, and that this is in fact the trademark of our species' success. Four general paradigms about the explanation of cranial size and shape have been proposed and argued over time, the first being phyletic relationship, then cognitive ability, somatic relationship, and lastly, bioclimatic correlation. Climate and regional environmental factors have been heavily examined for any correlation or causation with anthropometric distributions such as cranial capacity as well as cranial index. By collecting appropriate data from the Morton Collection of Crania and by using ArcGIS to collect and manipulate global climate data, it is the intention of this study to create powerful supporting evidence of the relationship between regional environment and global cranial variation in modern humans. The results of this study show that a large percentage of modern human cranial variation can be explained by the cranium's reaction to environmental stresses in the form of temperature, wetness, and incoming solar radiation. Although the genetic mechanism for these responses is unclear at the moment, it appears that cranial index is more influenced by dietary, metabolic, or developmental effects in the life history of the individual, while cranial capacity is more related to the deep temperature history of a particular person's environment. What this study does unequivocally prove is that the relationship between regional environment and modern human cranial variation can be seen on the individual level, and that when accurate and appropriate climatic data are collected and compared to a specific individual or population, powerful correlations and conclusions can be made. BACK DYNAMICS OF GAS AND PARTICLE PHASES OF CERTAIN PESTICIDES IN THE MICHIGAN ATMOSPHERE Gregory LeMay Majors: Environmental Studies & Materials Science & Engineering Dicofol, Dieldrin, and Pentachloroanisole (PCA) are compounds associated with the application of pesticides used in the United States in the latter part of the 20th century. Dieldrin has been banned as a pesticide for agricultural use since 1970 and as an insecticide since 1987. PCA is the byproduct of other aromatic compounds, including Pentachlorophenol, a compound used as a pesticide until 1984 but still used today for wood preservation. Dicofol has been used almost continuously in the United States since its introduction in 1957. Four sampling sites in the state of Michigan were chosen to record gas and particle concentrations of these three chemicals for a twenty-two month period, beginning in May 1992. Gas concentrations of Dicofol and Dieldrin at South Haven were higher than Deckerville, Dexter, or Pellston. PCA gas concentrations are highest at Deckerville, and second highest at South Haven. The Clausius-Clapeyron equation was used to analyze all sites and compounds to compare experimental values of delta H to theoretical values. The high enthalpy of vaporization of Dieldrin at South Haven combined with high gas concentrations suggests that the equilibrium concentration may be responding to more influences than air temperature. The majority of the sites recorded an insufficient amount of particle concentration data to perform analysis on particle concentrations and particle to gas (Kp) ratios as they relate to temperature. The defining trend of the data sets is that South Haven is the most contaminated of all of the sites. BACK EFFECTS OF RIVER DISCHARGE ON CORAL REEFS IN PUERTO RICO (AND RELATIONSHIP TO LAND COVER CHANGE OVER TIME) Christopher Malachowski Majors: Environmental Studies and Biology Coral reefs are among the most spectacular and biologically diverse ecosystems on earth, supporting a large array of species. Often referred to as the rainforests of the sea, these beautiful underwater habitats provide significant ecological and socioeconomic functions. Unfortunately, coral reef ecosystems are facing an onslaught of both natural and anthropogenic pressures on a global scale. Among the major causes of decreased coral cover around the world, nutrient loading and sedimentation in coastal waters is increasing in severity as human land use practices and development continue to expand. Although nutrient influx and sedimentation are natural results of runoff and river discharge, the clearing of forests and natural vegetation lowers soil stability and increases the suspended sediments and nutrients in terrestrial runoff. The conversion of pasture or natural lands to urban areas further accelerates this process. While a low input of terrigenous sediment and nutrients are important for healthy reefs, excessive influxes are detrimental. Ultimately, sedimentation and nutrient loading may kill major reef-building corals and, thus, lead to the eventual collapse of coral reef communities. To better understand the impact of river discharge on coral reefs, an analysis of precipitation records, stream flow data, water quality data, records of coral health (coral cover, species diversity, algal cover, and occurrence of bleaching), and records of land use practices and land cover was performed in the attempt to establish correlations between sedimentation/nutrient loading and coral health. Several sites in Puerto Rico were assessed, including Mayaguez, Ponce, Rio Piedras, and Guanica. These sites vary with respect to climate, land cover, and level of urbanization. Correlations were found between types of land cover and suspended sediment concentrations and sediment loads. Furthermore, the four sites examined showed a relationship between coral cover/diversity and sedimentation. In addition, the long-term degradation of coral reef health in Puerto Rico mirrors the substantial transition in land use and land cover throughout Puerto Rico during the past fifty years. These correlations may help determine the extent to which human development is affecting coral reef communities. Also, these findings may substantiate more extensive research projects in this area, whereby definite causation factors can be determined. Ultimately, these results can be applied to more effective conservation efforts not only in coastal regions, but also throughout entire watershed basins. BACK CHILDHOOD OBESITY AND THE FAST FOOD INDUSTRY Patricia Mahony-Anaya Majors: Environmental Studies and Health & Societies Over the past three decades a dramatic rise of obesity in all demographic groups has attracted the attention of manifold health experts. Children are a major concern because they are even more likely to become obese adults if they are obese during childhood. Childhood obesity is of major concern due to the physical complications that may stem from it including: cardiovascular disease, certain cancers, coronary heart disease, stroke, hypertension, high blood pressure, respiratory disease, gallstones and osteoarthritis. Psychological problems may also develop. These increased physical and psychological concerns not only affect the obese but those that are not because of increased health costs. The question of how to prevent childhood obesity is most pertinent. Although there may be a genetic proclivity for obesity, it can not account for the rapid and pervasive increase over the past thirty years of obesity. Hence, other factors may be responsible. Environmental change has been suggested as an apt explanation for increased obesity, especially the rise of fast-food consumption among the young. The flagship for this industry is undoubtedly McDonalds, the world's largest fast-food chain. My thesis explores the U.S. childhood obesity issue in relation to consumption of McDonald's products. How can a compromise between health concerns and McDonald's economic directives be met? The majority of McDonald's "healthy lifestyles" campaigns target adults but children are also at risk. To explore this issue further, two focus groups have been conducted to examine food preferences amongst children between eight and twelve years of age. BACK A WOLF AT THE DOOR: A STUDY OF THE GRAY WOLF RECOVERY IN THE NORTHERN ROCKY MOUNTAINS Elizabeth Moore Majors: Environmental Studies and Political Science In 1974, only decades after the last wolves were eradicated from the American West, the gray wolf was listed as endangered under the Endangered Species Act (ESA). Although the gray wolf was among the first species listed under the ESA, political pressures and stall tactics delayed reintroduction of wolves into Yellowstone National Park and central Idaho until 1995, and even then only under special provisions. Many western rural citizens vehemently resisted wolf recovery as a symbol of the oppressive "war on the West." On the opposite side of the polarized debate, environmentalists saw wolves as predators that belonged in their native habitats as regulators of the ecosystem. Although the recovery efforts succeeded, the wolf recovery program created intense resentment that may threaten the future of wolf management in the American West. This thesis will examine the arguments and organization of groups on both sides of the wolf debate in Idaho and Wyoming, where the opposition was intense, and in Montana, where efforts were less controversial. Political and economic histories of the states, and their relationships to federal land play important roles in causing these different responses. However, the wolf as a cultural symbol inevitably tempts leaders and organizations to make broad appeals in its name. Subsequent conflicts cannot easily be sidestepped by any particular management plan or structure. By understanding cultural beliefs in heated policy debates, policymakers can better address the concerns of citizens and stakeholders to enact more responsive and effectual policies. BACK THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DROUGHTS AND GROUNDWATER QUALITY IN CAROLINE COUNTY, VIRGINIA. Alyssa Neir Majors: Environmental Studies and Urban Studies The United States relies, to varying degrees, on groundwater resources for its water supply, especially during droughts. Caroline County, Virginia recently experienced a series of droughts within the 1998-2003 period. The relationship between droughts and groundwater quality in Caroline County was investigated using the Palmer Drought Index (PDI), groundwater levels, and groundwater quality data collected for eighteen wells by the United States Geological Survey. Linear regressions between the PDI values, nine groundwater quality constituents, and the groundwater levels were performed. Overall, 94% of the relationships between the groundwater level and the PDI were significant and indicate that the water table level decreases during droughts; 27% of the relationships between the nine groundwater quality measures and either the PDI or the groundwater level were significant. Riparian wells were the most complex and demonstrated inconsistent relationships. However, specific conductance, the concentration of phosphorus, and the concentration of ammonia plus organic nitrogen typically decreased during droughts. The concentration of dissolved oxygen decreased, and the concentrations of ammonia, nitrite, nitrite plus nitrate, and orthophosphate typically increased during drought conditions. The latter changes could lead to the deterioration of the groundwater quality. In using the relationships to determine changes in groundwater quality, the overall change in the groundwater quality of a well should be determined by balancing the beneficial or harmful change of each constituent. The ranges of the concentrations of the constituents were also compared to the drinking water standards set by the U.S. EPA and state and counties of Virginia. Not all of the violations occurred during drought conditions. In some cases, the number of wells exceeding the standards decreased during drought conditions (PDI <= -1). However, none of the wells that experienced this improvement in groundwater quality had a significant relationship between that constituent and the PDI. Overall, there were no general trends found according to geology, land use, proximity to surface water bodies, or well depth that could be used to predict water quality/chemistry changes during a drought. However, the significant relationships for the chemicals regulated by drinking water standards suggest that groundwater quality deteriorates during droughts. Therefore, residents should be aware that they might need to monitor their groundwater quality during a drought to ensure that it is safe to drink. BACK THE EFFECT OF MORPHOLOGY, POLYP SIZE, DEPTH AND TEMPERATURE ON FEEDING IN THREE SPECIES OF PANAMANIAN CORALS James Palardy Majors: Biology and Individualized Major: Marine Science Although it is known that scleractinian corals obtain fixed carbon as a result of both photosynthesis and heterotrophy, the proportionate contribution of each source remains unclear. Here, we reexamine Porters (1976) model of resource partitioning and assess the effects of temperature on coral feeding. Feeding rates and the species composition of zooplankton captured by three coral species were directly observed in situ at two depths on a shallow patch reef at Isla Contadora, Gulf of Panama, in February 2003. Fragments of the corals Pocillopora damicornis (branching, 1.0 mm polyps), Pavona clavus (mounding, 1.3 mm polyps) and Pavona gigantea (mounding, 3.0 mm polyps) were collected at 3m depth and transplanted to 1 and 6 m depth on the reef, placed inside feeding chambers and exposed to high concentrations of natural zooplankton. After one hour of feeding, the coral fragments were collected, the number and type of zooplankton within 100 polyps of each counted, and feeding rates calculated per 100 polyps and per cm2. The quantity of zooplankton captured increased with temperature and depth and was significantly higher in corals with mounding morphology than with coral with branching morphology. Although feeding rates per polyp increased with polyp size, feeding rates per cm2 did not vary with polyp size. Assemblages of captured zooplankton did not change with polyp size, morphology, or depth. Additionally, the proportionate contribution of poor swimming and mid-sized (200-500m) zooplankton taxa eaten were over-represented relative to their presence in the ambient zooplankton assemblage. These results suggest that feeding rates are facultative in these coral species and that feeding rates are higher in mounding corals than branched corals due to increased feeding effort and not due to increased polyp size or S/V ratio. BACK A STUDY OF NEOCERATOPSIAN BRAINCASES, WITH AN EMPHASIS ON THE SPECIES AVACERATOPS LAMMERSI AND ZUNICERATOPS CHRISTOPHERI Karen Poole Major: Paleobiology Ceratopsians are a group of ornithischian dinosaurs that diversified in the Late Cretaceous, and are often classified by the horns and frills that adorn the skull. However, other areas of the skull are useful for classification, as well. The braincase, a rather complex region of the skull that surrounds and protects the brain, is often glossed over in studies of complete skeletons. This study focuses only on the braincases of a few species of neoceratopsians, which may be helpful in determining the phylogeny of this group. In general, the more rostral portion of the braincase changes very little through ceratopsian evolution. Many of the changes that occur in the caudal portion are attributable to the need to support the absolute and relatively larger size of the skull. The species Avaceratops lammersi and Zuniceratops christopheri are particularly interesting, as they are near the divergence of ceratopsids and non-ceratopsids. These species share some interesting characters, including (1) a teardrop-shaped foramen magnum, (2) a supraoccipital that participates in the border of the foramen magnum, and (3) a groove that runs from the foramen ovalis laterally along the paroccipital process of the exoccipital. The first feature is a synapomorphy of these two taxa, the second is a basal character within the Neoceratopsia, and the third is only found elsewhere in Montanoceratops cerorhynchus. However, the large, spherical occipital condyle with a distinct neck in both taxa and the dorsoventrally deep proximal end of the exoccipitals in Z. christopheri indicate that these taxa are closely related to (if not within) the Ceratopsidae. This study, in conjunction with future research on the rest of the skeleton, may establish a more accurate ceratopsian phylogeny. BACK IDENTIFICATION OF AN ALLOSAURID (DINOSAURIA: THERPODA) FROM THE MORRISON FORMATION (UPPER JURASSIC), CARBON COUNTY, MONTANA Timothy Pirolli Majors: Paleobiology and Biology A medium-sized allosaurid theropod dinosaur, ANS 21123, excavated in 1999 from the Brushy Basin Member of the Upper Jurassic Morrison Formation of south-central Montana (Carbon County), is the first described Allosaurus from the state. The specimen is approximately 30% complete and includes both partial dentaries, elements of the pectoral girdle (parts of each scapula and coracoids), complete forelimbs (both humeri, radii, ulnae and manus), most of the pelvic girdle (partial ilium, pubes and ischia), incomplete vertebrae (one dorso-sacral, four ?sacral, one ?caudal), and part of the right hind limb (complete femur, proximal tibia, partial fibula). The specimen is more mature than most allosaurids from more southern regions of the Morrison Formation. Up to six possible paleopathologies in the specimen indicate a high level of activity. The gracile nature of the specimen, coupled with its identity as the northern-most discovered Allosaurus, leads to speculation about the paleoenvironment in which it lived. Despite its unusual morphology, morphological analysis and the lack of key diagnostic elements are only sufficient to diagnose the specimen to the genus Allosaurus Marsh. BACK ANTHROPOGENIC CAUSES FOR THE PROLIFERATION OF MOSQUITO-BORNE DISEASES: A CASE STUDY OF DENGUE IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE UNITED STATES Stephanie Potts Majors: Environmental Studies and Anthropology When humans alter their environments the results are often negative. Short-term gains in economic development lead to a decrease in environmental quality, which can have impacts on human health. This is evident in the re-emergence of diseases that were previously under control, caused by the modification of the natural environment. Vector-borne diseases are especially sensitive to environmental conditions and many are occurring with increasing prevalence. Mosquitoes are a particularly important carrier of disease because of their frequent contact with humans and their wide distribution across the globe. The increase in mosquito populations that is a result of human alterations of the environment is seen in the rising prevalence of mosquito-borne diseases. Yellow Fever, West Nile Virus, Malaria, and Dengue are just a few of the many diseases that are spread by mosquito vectors. Dengue has been called the most important mosquito-borne virus in the world, occurring in more than a hundred countries and placing almost half of the world population (2.5 billion people) at risk. The reemergence of this disease that has occurred in Latin American over the last three decades has a massive impact on public health in the region. Along with the reemergence of Dengue fever a more severe form of the disease has entered the region, Dengue Hemorrhagic Fever, placing the population in further jeopardy. The resurgence of dengue in Latin America is a result of the consequences of unplanned urbanization, poverty, increased waste generation, and land use changes on environmental conditions. The problem of dengue in Latin America is likely to get worse before it gets better. Resistance to pesticides, increased travel and trade, and global warming could all continue to exacerbate the current situation. The differing prevalence of dengue in Latin America versus the United States is an example of how different rates of the same disease in different parts of the world are attributable to environmental risk factors. Individual behavioral patterns have been able to halt the spread of dengue across the border thus far. However, the disruption of global environmental processes by industrialized countries is a risk to future endemic transmission of dengue in the United States. Through analysis of the environmental causes to this disease the threat of future occurrence can be evaluated in both Latin America and the United States. BACK ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT DOES FIRE: CONTROLLING THE UNCONTROLLABLE Brennan Quinn Majors: Environmental Studies Recent discoveries in plant genetics and developmental biology have revolutionized models of plant growth. Many of the genetic events that characterize leaf and flower formation have been pinpointed, providing important insights into the timing and mechanisms of plant development. Models based on these discoveries have been successful in explaining many of the features associated with development, especially leaf morphogenesis. Interpreting the fossil record in light of these results is an interesting combination of paleontology and developmental biology, and the extensive plant record makes this possible. We investigated the fossil record for significant morphological traits that could indicate the usefulness, despite widespread convergence in plant forms, of linking fossil morphologies to underlying developmental systems determined in extant plants. In order to undertake this study, I have collected specimens of two Carboniferous plant groups for analysis: medullosan pteridosperms and filicopsids. These two unrelated plant groups developed similar foliage (large compound leaves) and lived in similar environments, but exhibit significant differences in the morphology of leaf development. A morphological analysis of the compound leaf tip in both groups shows that significant differences between them do exist, despite convergence on a similar overall form. This indicates that general morphology can be a useful guide to determining developmental systems in ancient plants. BACK ISSAQUAH HIGHLANDS: SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OR NEW SUBURBANISM? Ciara Stewart Majors: Environmental Studies and Political Science Issaquah Highlands is a new suburban development near Seattle that is marketed as a "Green" community. Using the theory of New Urbanism, I analyzed Issaquah Highlands to see if it really is an environmentally sustainable alternative to sprawl. I found that it was in many respects and recommend that the state of Washington use Issaquah Highlands as a model for future development. BACK The Predicted Effects of Climate Change and International Mitigation Efforts on Developing Countries Klair Spiller Majors: Environmental Studies and Philosophy, Politics and Economics Following the recent ratification of the Kyoto Protocol, the first international document that legally mandates the reduction of greenhouse-gas emissions, debate pertaining to climate change and future mitigation strategies has been widespread. The uncertainty surrounding the predicted impacts of climate change and the reliability of the science of climatology have become popular media subjects. Governments, however, have devoted more attention to the economics of climate change, with specific emphasis on the role of developing countries in the matter. The Earth's average temperature is rising. In the past decade, temperature has increased at a rate significantly faster than historic norms. Researchers attribute the accelerated pace to high concentrations of greenhouse gases, particularly carbon dioxide, in the atmosphere. These gases trap outgoing terrestrial radiation, causing global temperatures to increase. The greenhouse gases come from a number of natural sources, but the Industrial Revolution produced a sharp increase in atmospheric concentrations. Many scientists, politicians, and environmentalists around the world point out the correlation between carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere and temperature increases. They blame human actions like air pollution and deforestation for accelerated change, further arguing that the projected consequences are too severe to ignore. Opponents contend that the science surrounding climate change is not fully understood, rendering prediction of actual effects and appropriate climate policies hard to support. Despite lack of consensus, based on current projections, many nations and international groups emphasize the importance of curbing emissions and have taken steps to stabilize them. The 1997 Kyoto Protocol enacted by the United Nations became the first international treaty to mandate greenhouse-gas-emission reductions. While 144 countries have ratified it, the treaty has a large number of opponents, most notably the United States and Australia. Critics cite two main reasons that warrant non-participation: First, they argue that the mandated reductions would destroy the economy and unfairly burden the United States and countries whose primary industries emit more by necessity than other industries do. Second, they insist that the lack of involvement of developing countries, which include China and India, two of the world's biggest emitters of greenhouse gases, in emission-reduction mandates is unfair and impractical. This point has led to acrimony in North-South relations, and has caused fissures among developed countries. Developing countries feel that the distribution of the burden of reducing emissions is yet another unwanted and undeserved obligation, while some industrialized countries argue that global reductions that involve all nations are necessary. The argument is further complicated by the muddled provisions set out by the Kyoto Protocol regarding developing countries, the Clean Development Mechanism, and funding and investment distributions. Any successful international emission-stabilization strategy must represent a drastic departure from the current system. In order to slow climate change, developing countries must progress in the most environmentally sound ways, and a system must be established that requires these nations to reduce emissions. However, distinctions must be drawn among advanced developing nations and least developed ones. Concrete standards need to be established that define the point at which a country transforms from a developing to a developed nation. All countries must provide accurate emissions data in order to reduce atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gas most efficiently. The Clean Development Mechanism must be standardized to facilitate and encourage international compliance and investment in poor countries. Flexibility mechanisms must be added, and carbon trading must be successful to minimize the costs of mitigation efforts. Further, the United States and like-minded countries must begin to scale back emissions with or without developing-country participation. The developed countries must reduce fossil-fuel dependence, which currently dictates most aspects of their culture. Most important, as the international community adjusts to the implementation of Kyoto and looks to the future of climate change, new options must be explored that will ensure the active participation of the United States as well as all the developing countries. BACK REVIVING AN ELEVATED EDEN: MANHATTAN'S HIGH LINE AS AN URBAN GREENWAY Zachary Suttile Major: Environmental Studies with Fine Arts concentration The High Line is an elevated rail structure on the West Side of Manhattan. Built in the 1930s, the High Line was the first completed stage of the West Side Improvement, a massive urban infrastructure project undertaken by the New York Central Railroad. Since the early 1980s, the High Line's tracks have become stagnant. Disuse has carpeted the rail viaduct in meadow grass and wildflowers. Through the co-operation of architects, urban designers and planners, social scientists, government officials, and residents, The Friends of the High Line, a 501(c)(3) non-profit organization, aim for the preservation and reuse of this abandoned elevated passageway. The conceptualization, design, and construction of a public promenade atop the out-of-use elevated viaduct offers New Yorkers a unique opportunity to provide much-needed green space. BACK