Earth & Enviromental Science Senior Research Conference 2005 & 2006 ABSTRACTS PREDICTING THE GROWTH OF WIND POWER THROUGH 2025 Jonathan Baker Majors: Environmental Studies and Political Science Advisor: Elaine Horn, 3 Phases Energy Services Access to cheap and abundant electricity fundamentally changed American society throughout the past 100 years. Between 1949 and 2004 retail sales of electricity increased from 254 million megawatt hours to 3,500 million megawatt hours. On a per capita basis, Americans are consuming 7 times the amount of electricity they did in 1949. Two-thirds of the fuel used to generate the electricity used by Americans is from fossil-fuel sources, including coal, natural gas, and oil. The combustion of fossil fuels contributes to a number of health and environmental problems through the emissions of particulate matter, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and carbon dioxide. Currently, roughly 130 million Americans live in areas with unhealthy air. It is estimated that 24,000 people die prematurely each year from air pollution. Over the past 25 years new types of energy were promoted to reduce the need for fossil fuels in electricity generation. Wind energy emerged as one of the most promising forms of renewable energy. In the past 5 years the amount of installed wind capacity has grown more than 300%, and wind-energy use has grown by more than 250%. The growth in wind power is possible because of several factors: Favorable tax incentives have subsidized production and allowed wind energy to be more competitive with other forms of generation. Increased concern for environmental issues has led many states to set minimum renewable-content requirements in their fuel mixes. Environmental concerns have also encouraged large institutions and utility customers to purchase renewable energy. Finally, advances in technology have increased the yields from wind turbines and eliminated many of the problems from the first generation of wind-turbine technology. Currently, wind energy represents a negligible proportion of electricity generation in the U.S. While there are technical and resource difficulties that will limit the role of wind energy in the national electric portfolio, wind power does have the potential to displace an appreciable percentage of fossil-fuel-fired plants. If tax subsidies continue to encourage production, if states continue to press for meaningful portfolio standards, and if the public continues to support environmental initiatives, wind power will continue to grow as a component of the U.S. electricity mix during the next few decades. BACK COMMUNITY RESPONSES TO DISASTER: A CASE STUDY OF THE SAGO MINE DISASTER J. Todd Bergstrom Majors: Environmental Studies and Psychology Advisor: Nuwan Jayawickreme, Psychology On January 2, 2006, an explosion ripped through the Sago Coal Mine in Upshur County, West Virginia, trapping 13 miners underground for over 40 hours.  Twelve of those miners eventually died, sending a shock wave of trauma and grief through the small, cohesive community.  In this study I have examined the nature of this trauma on a community-wide scale.  The purpose of my research has been to understand how a technological disaster can affect a community sociologically and psychologically, both in terms of how the community changed its views of itself and of the coal-mining industry around which it was built.  I conducted over 35 interviews with members of the community, and collected public-record data such as police reports, hospital records, and local media reporting.  These data, along with the observational notes I was able to collect during the two weeks I spent in the community, allowed me to explore the anatomy of a community in disaster.  My study reveals that the community of Upshur County reacted to this disaster in two distinct stages.  The first stage seems to have lasted for about one week after the disaster.  This stage was characterized by strong emotional attachment to the situation and an increase in social interaction, politeness, charitable acts, communal solidarity, and collective somberness.  There was also a noticeable decrease in arrests and assault charges during this stage.  The second stage began about two weeks after the disaster occurred, and lasted through the 10th week after the disaster.  The beginning of this stage was marked by increases in social upheavals in the form of arrests and assault charges.  These indicators of social distress diminished after about three weeks.  The entire second stage, however, is marked by significant decreases in talking about the event, public displays of solidarity, and the politeness and compassion that marked the first stage.  There is also a decrease in the community’s willingness to discuss the event, and an overall avoidance of it as a topic of conversation.  Overall, however, the community seems to have coped with the disaster well, showing no signs of lasting emotional trauma.  The disaster seems to have done little to shatter the community’s pride and commitment to the coal-mining industry it was built around.  The community recognizes a need for safety improvements in the industry, but remains proud and loyal to coal mining and the people who work in the industry.  In the academic literature, there are several stage models of collective coping which outline the course of community response to a traumatic event or disaster.  Though many aspects of these models prove to be correct, my study provides evidence that a single model is not sufficient to understand thoroughly the complexities of the collective coping rituals of a community after disaster. BACK LONG-TERM CHANGES IN THE FOREST SOILS OF THE ADIRONDAK MOUNTAINS Matthew Boyer Major: Environmental Studies with a Geology concentration Advisor: Arthur Johnson, Earth & Environmental Science I have analyzed long-term changes in soil acidity of the Adirondack Mountain region, and the potential impact of acid deposition on forest health and productivity.  Acid deposition (acid rain) occurs when industrial emissions and natural processes release sulfur dioxide (S02) and nitrogen oxides (N0x) into the atmosphere.  These gases combine with water and oxygen to form sulfuric and nitric acids that accumulate in the clouds.  These acids are then deposited onto the Earth’s surface in the form of precipitation, and potentially change natural soil-acidification conditions.  I measured extractable calcium and aluminum levels at different depths within distinct soil horizons.  Calcium and aluminum levels produced by dilute acid extractions are used as key indicators to identify existing soil-acidity levels.  A long-term database of soil-acidification trends could prove to be helpful in determining the environmental impacts created by acid deposition. BACK ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION WITHIN THE SCHOOL DISTRICT OF PHILADELPHIA: AN INTERDISCIPLINARY CURRICULUM APPROACH Megan Brady Major: Environmental Studies with an Education concentration Advisor: Nancy Lee Bergey, School of Education The goal of environmental-education programs is to develop citizens who are knowledgeable about the environment and environmental problems, aware of possible solutions, and engaged in working toward solutions.  Despite the potential importance of environmental-education programs, they are largely nonexistent in public-school classrooms (especially in urban areas). Only one environmental-education class is offered at only one school within the Philadelphia School District.  My thesis proposes three strategies to implement an environmental-education curriculum in the middle-school grades throughout the School District of Philadelphia:  as an independent class, as an after-school program, and as an interdisciplinary curriculum.  After consideration of these three options, I determined that an interdisciplinary curriculum is the best approach for the District to use.  By studying relevant content to be included in such an urban environmental-education program, I have developed a model of an urban environmental-education interdisciplinary curriculum for a fifth-grade unit focusing on ecosystems. BACK FEASIBILITY OF ANCIENT DNA ANALYSIS OF VIKING-AGE PIGS FROM THE NORTH ATLANTIC Michael Campana Major: Paleobiology Advisors: Todd Disotell and Janet Monge, Anthropology The archaeofauna of Viking sites around the North Atlantic includes the remains of domestic pigs (Sus scrofa). In Iceland, Greenland, and the Faroe Islands, these pigs disappeared in the early Middle Ages and were replaced by sheep, cattle, and other animals. The Viking settlement of Iceland included human populations originating both directly from Norway and from Viking settlements in the British Isles, as confirmed by recent genetic studies of the modern residents of Iceland. Archaeologists are also interested in the origins of the livestock that Icelanders brought with them and raised on site. The extraction and comparison of ancient DNA from Viking pigs provides a compelling opportunity to discover the provenience of those pigs, especially because they are now extinct in Iceland and in other former Viking settlements. Iceland appears to be a suitable climate for ancient DNA preservation. It is sub-Arctic and does not suffer from heavy rainfall. In fact, most of Iceland is a desert. Furthermore, the pig bones I studied were only 800 to 1200 years old—young compared to other ancient samples from which DNA has been successfully extracted. As a precursor to further DNA analysis, I attempted to extract mitochondrial DNA from a small sample of pigs from sites throughout Iceland and the Faeroe Islands. I learned that no DNA had been preserved in these samples. Although the data are not statistically conclusive, due to the limited sample size, it seems that DNA preservation in Iceland is surprisingly poor. BACK SOIL RESORPTION IN SUSUA STATE FOREST Minocher Dadachanji Major: Environmental Studies with a Biology concentration Advisor: Arthur Johnson, Earth & Environmental Science The Susua forest in Puerto Rico lies upon serpentinite soils, ultramafic soils high in magnesium and iron.  Serpentinite is a metamorphic rock formed beneath the oceanic crust, and creates unusual growing circumstances when found on land.  The Susua forest supports a low overall biomass.  Using a resorption study, I undertook to determine variations in nutrient availability across Susua.  The four nutrients I examined are: Nitrogen, Calcium, Magnesium, and Potassium.  By looking at these nutrients in both green and senescent leaves of various species, I have tried to determine which of these nutrients, if any, the plants in the environment are resorbing, and how nutrient levels in leaves may be related to soil depth or plot location. BACK HOW ACCURATELY CAN WE PREDICT LARGE FUTURE METEORITE IMPACTS? Kristyn De Marco Major: Environmental Studies with a Geology concentration Advisor: Robert Giegengack, Earth & Environmental Science Since the time that the Earth was formed, it has been bombarded by meteorites, chunks of solid matter from space.  In the earliest impact event recorded in human history, a 280-pound stony meteorite struck the Earth at noon on November 7th, 1492, in a wheat field near the village of Ensisheim, which at that time was in Germany.  The meteorite made a hole in the ground 3 feet deep.  The townspeople believed that this fallen stone had a supernatural origin. King Maximilian of Germany visited the site and declared the meteorite to be a sign of the wrath of God against the French, who were then engaged in a war with the Holy Roman Empire. Although there were many meteorite sightings around the world following the one in 1492, most cultures maintained their religious and supernatural beliefs of origin until the late 1700’s.  In 1794 Ernst Friedrich Chladni, a German scientist, wrote a book explaining his idea that meteorites are celestial bodies from space.  In 1802 an English scientist, Edward Charles Howard, showed that the chemical compositions of 4 different meteorites were almost identical.  The meteorites contained an alloy of iron and nickel, a composition not found on Earth in natural materials. This discovery suggested to Howard a common, extraterrestrial origin for meteorites. Today we have an extensive database of ~175 well documented major meteorite impacts on Earth.  We have records of the number of meteorites seen, as well as the number that have been successfully recovered.  From measurements of the amount of meteoritic material preserved in the Antarctic and Greenland ice sheets, scientists now estimate that about 50,000 tons of extraterrestrial material comes to Earth each year. Most of the meteorites which have struck the Earth did not cause much damage, either because of their small size or because they struck the Earth at locations remote from dense concentrations of humans.  However, a large meteorite will impact the Earth in the future, and will cause great damage to the planet.  NASA’s Sentry, a highly computerized collision-monitoring system, scans the current asteroid catalog for near-Earth objects with the potential to strike the Earth within the next 100 years.  Sentry not only keeps a database of future impacts, but also generates the number of potential impacts a certain body will have with Earth, a temporal interval in which the body will probably impact Earth, the statistical probability of such an impact, the estimated diameter of the impacting object, and the velocity of the object.  Despite advances in technology, we cannot accurately predict the exact time of the next large meteorite impact.  We have only been able to gather information about future impacts for a small percentage of the total number of interstellar objects that represent a threat to our society.  There is much more work to be done in this field, but, even with extensive further study, we may never be able to identify all extraterrestrial objects that might impact the Earth. BACK TAPHONOMY OF A SAUROPOD QUARRY IN THE UPPER MORRISON FORMATION, BIGHORN BASIN, WYOMING Emmanuel Ergas Major: Geology with a Paleobiology concentration Advisor: Peter Dodson, Earth & Environmental Science More than 100 sauropod skeletal elements collected at the Red Canyon Ranch Upper Quarry in the eastern Bighorn Basin provide taphonomic, anatomic, and stratigraphic data that support inferences about the paleoenvironment and biogeography of a dinosaur species.  The bones were preserved in a greenish siltstone overlain by trough cross-bedded sandstones.  The skeleton was completely disarticulated, but has been inferred to represent one individual because of the relative proportions of the recovered bones and a lack of repeated elements.  Identified bones include a large (1.5 m) humerus and a proportionately sized scapula, femur, coracoid, and pubis, plus caudal vertebrae and ribs. Comparisons with literature descriptions and museum collections of caudal vertebrae rule out identification as Diplodocus or Barosaurus, while the gracile nature of the humerus and scapula argues against diagnosis as Apatosaurus or Camarasaurus. The size and shape of the latter two elements support an identification of Brachiosaurus, but overall morphology of all skeletal elements does not align this specimen with any currently known taxon. While a new locality for Brachiosaurus would greatly benefit biogeographic studies of this rare genus, the absence of brachiosaur synapomorphies makes diagnosis difficult. A recently prepared diplodocid caudal vertebra opens the possibility of a mixed assemblage of sub-adult to adult individuals. At the Red Canyon Ranch Upper Quarry, larger bones were found in clusters with similar long-axis orientations, while smaller bones were dispersed throughout the Quarry.  The larger bones displayed little to no wear or weathering, but many smaller elements were broken and/or highly weathered.  Vertical stratification of bones shows possible sorting by density.  The preliminary interpretation that some smaller elements found at the perimeter of the quarry are turtle bones, as well as the presence of smaller, more gracile bones (under 10 cm in length), suggest that the deposit represents a mixed accumulation of transported small elements.  The excellent condition of most large bone surfaces recovered adjacent to highly weathered and fragmentary bones indicates either different provenances for smaller and larger elements, or size-differential initial exposure and burial.  The fine-grained, massive siltstone and well preserved bone surfaces suggest that nonviolent flooding was the main depositional event, followed by migration of a river channel over the site. BACK FRAMING GLOBAL WARMING: A LOOK AT CONGRESSIONAL FRAMING AND ITS AFFECT ON PUBLIC OPINION Adrian Gerrits Majors: Environmental Studies and Communications Advisor: Oscar Gandy Since James Hansen’s congressional testimony in 1988, the debate over legislation to be enacted in response to global climate change has been one of the most hotly contested issues on the political agenda.  Hundreds of bills have been introduced that either exacerbate the global warming problem by allowing more CO2 emissions, or mandate renewable energy, energy-efficient technology, or a credit system for those resisting change.  As in most environmental battles, the majority of Republican politicians choose to unite against progressive policies to address the causes of global warming, whereas Democrats tend to side with those in favor of such policies.  Committee hearings held both in the House and Senate have been major arenas of debate for these two sides.  The Committee on Energy and Commerce in the House, and the Committee on Energy and Natural Resources in the Senate, are the major battlegrounds for this environmental dispute. In this project I undertake to explain the lack of legislation for combating global warming by looking at three possible causes.  I used data gathered through the Lexis Nexis Congressional website to identify those organizations from which witnesses have been called to testify in congressional hearings on Global Warming for the past 20 years.  My hypothesis is that Republicans use witness selection to frame Global Warming as less of an issue than it is.  I also examined public-opinion data about Global Warming collected by the Gallup Organization during the same period represented by the Congressional hearings to see how public opinion affected or was affected by those hearings.  Finally, I examined the frequency of news articles relating to Global Warming during the same time period.  I used Factiva to search for articles in USA Today and the NY Times.  By cross-referencing all three data sets, I reached some interesting conclusions.  The Senate is fairly balanced between Republican and Democratic chairs of hearings.  Republican and Democratic chairs asked similar types of witnesses to testify.  However, the House was very skewed, both in terms of the number of hearings and the type of witnesses.  Republican chairs only held two hearings in the House during the twenty-year period, while Democratic chairs held thirteen.  Public-opinion data seemed divided along party lines in terms of the extent to which people worried about Global Warming.  The only major shift was around 2000, right after the U.S. withdrew from the Kyoto Protocol. My data show a clear relation among congressional hearings, public opinion, and the division of this issue along party lines.  There is a clear correlation between the way Global Warming is presented to congressmen and the party affiliation of the committee chair at that time.  These data may help explain why there has been such a poor response by the U.S. government to the serious threat of Global Warming. BACK THE ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS OF SKI RESORT OPERATIONS AND EXPANSION Laura Goldberg Majors: Environmental Studies and Fine Arts Sub-matriculant: City and Regional Planning, Environmental Planning concentration Advisor: Tom Daniel The environment is the lifeblood of the ski industry.  Because ski resorts rely directly on the natural environment, they can impose drastic effects on it.  Ski areas are located in outdoor areas often thought to be pristine and unharmed; therefore, environmental degradation caused by skiing and resort operations and expansion is often overlooked.  Also, the drive to create the biggest and best destination often overshadows environmental concerns.  It is important to recognize that ski areas are not exempt from the environmental-planning process. Major environmental issues surrounding ski-area operations and expansion include land- use concerns, water supply, and global warming.  Whether located on public or private land, resorts often face opposition when they choose to expand.  Resorts located on U.S. Forest Service land must go through extensive federal approval processes when initiating expansion projects.  Other ski resorts may also face such obstacles, due to state and local land-use laws.  Water supply also becomes a concern, due to the remote locations of many resorts, and the amount of water used for snowmaking.  Global warming, though not caused by ski-area operations, is a growing concern due to the effect it has on the industry as a whole. Several ski areas have taken extensive measures to become environmentally friendly.  Others lag behind.  Aspen, Colorado, is well known in the industry for its tight environmental policies; Killington, Vermont, is famous for recent land-use battles surrounding its Master Plan; the recent partnership between Big Sky, Montana, and Moonlight Basin represents a new direction in ski-resort expansion.  Each resort faces unique challenges due to location and corporate vision. BACK MAN & LAND: THE EFFECTS OF EIGHTEENTH & NINETEENTH CENTURY AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES ON THE NORTHERN HALF OF THE ISLE OF ARRAN Christina Millen Gravatt Major: Environmental Studies with a Humanities concentration Advisor: Yvette Bordeaux, Earth & Environmental Science The political history of Scotland and the economic development of its countryside have been well studied. However, the effect of eighteenth and nineteenth century agricultural practices on the environment of specific Hebridean Islands has received less attention.  This is especially true of the effect of these practices on the landscape that today is world renowned for its scenic wonder and attraction to outdoor enthusiasts.  The Isle of Arran, known as “Scotland in Miniature”, is located in the Firth of Clyde. The northern half of the Isle supports a population of less than 1500 people; it is this lack of development that makes the area ideal for my historical environmental investigative project. Agriculture has been described “as severe change on the landscape”.   The construction of farmhouses, roads, fencing, dykes (field enclosures of stone and/or turf), outbuildings, bothies, piggeries, barns, etc. has had a profound effect on the landscape.  The northern half of the island is composed of wildly romantic rushing burns cascading down granite mountains, forming scenic waterfalls that entice tourists to hike across the moors in search of a closer look.  The scree-covered sides of some of the mountains support no vegetation, while on gentler slopes the blue-green color of the Forestry Commission evergreen plantations dominate the landscape where agricultural clachans (villages) once existed.  Agricultural practices on the Isle of Arran changed little from the Middle Ages to the eighteenth century. Agricultural practices consisted of using the run-rig and lazy-bed methods of plowing fields.  The former method required the rigs to be about four or five feet apart, the width that the seed could be sown by hand casting. The furrows were deeply carved into the earth and the soil heaved up between, creating runoff channels for rainfall. The rigs and lazy beds (hand-dug furrows) usually followed the slope of the land.  That geometry allowed the 80-100” of annual rainfall to be channeled into the burns and small rivers, resulting in erosion of the soil and leaching of nutrients.  Loss of nutrients was also a consequence of heavy crop use of the land without sufficient fallow periods.  The farmers were forced to use various fertilizer-replenishment systems, such as gathering seaweed from the beaches, the application of marl (a clay-like nutrient-rich soil additive), and grazing of cattle in the infields. The eighteenth century brought the “Age of Improvement” to Scotland, with new agricultural technologies and the consolidation of small farms and crofts into larger, more profitable units.  Among the new agricultural methods were the development of enclosure systems, construction of dykes (fences), and a movement away from field crops to sheep, and later deer herds for wealthy sportsmen.    I investigated the archives of the Heritage museum where I found eighteenth-century information on Arran agriculture.  I used that information to investigate two sites on opposite sides of the island to compare the current vegetation to conditions that prevailed in the eighteenth century. Quotation from Dr. Herman W. Pfefferkorn’s lecture to University of Pennsylvania ENVS 301 class, 1/29/04 Bothy- housing  for non family member male farming employees Scree- broken stones Run-rig – three and four foot high ridges created for crops.  Plants were sown in the rigs and not in the furrows. In the North of Arran the consolidation of the small farms into larger units began in the late eighteenth century with Burrel’s clearance plans.  The consolidation ended with the removal of all the families (about 500 inhabitants)  in north Glen Sannox in 1829. BACK ELECTRO-OSMOSIS, CONDUCTIVE POLYMERS, AND DEWATERING SOILS Evan Greathouse Major: Environmental Studies with History concentration Sub-matriculant in the Master of Applied Geology (MSAG) Program Advisor: Craig Calabria & Edward Doheny Saturated soft soils have long plagued the geotechnical engineering practice. When the need arrives to build in such areas, soft saturated soils become problematic. Since the 1920’s the most common strategy used in the effort to dewater soft saturated soils has been the installation of vertical drains (Calabria, 2005). Vertical drains today are long pieces of grooved plastic wrapped in a nonwoven geotextile filter (Calabria, 2005). These vertical drains are inserted deep into the ground where they create pathways for water removal. To induce the flow of water upward in the vertical drains, one of two common methods is usually used: 1) applying a load or surcharge on top of the existing material to squeeze water out, or 2) using vacuum consolidation to reduce atmospheric pressure and force the water out (Masse et. Al., 2001). However, both methods are often costly and/or risky. Electro-osmosis as a technology to dewater soft saturated soils is one cost-effective, low-risk alternative that geotechnical engineers are now considering. Electro-osmosis (E-O) is the process whereby a charged surface is used to move an ionized liquid (Kim et, al., 2002). When a DC current is applied to a clay mixture, water moves toward the cathode [negative charge] (Calabria, 2005). When the electrical charge is removed the flow of water stops. It has been shown that neither grain size nor degree of compaction have an effect upon water flow rates when using E-O, in contrast to the driving forces of surcharge loading or vacuum application, The most readily available conductive materials are metals. However, in aqueous environments with an applied electrical charge, metals quickly corrode and lose their ability to act as conductors. Material scientists are currently experimenting with adding conductive materials such as carbon black, carbon fibers, metallic fibers, finely graded metal particles, and graphite to other substances such as polyethylene (PE) or polyvinylchloride (PVC) to create conductive geosynthetic materials (Nettleton et al, 1998). Unfortunately, the use of these materials can be expensive and can impact the environment negatively. Edward Doheny and Craig Calabria, members of the Earth and Environmental Sciences faculty at the University of Pennsylvania, conceived the idea to use conductive polymers as electrodes for electro-osmosis. We quickly discovered that the most stable conductive polymers in aqueous environments were at most 1/10 as conductive as common metals, which we thought might represent inadequate conductivity for E-O applications. We acquired a sample of conductive polymer material from the Eeonyx Corporation (CA). In the lab, we compacted river-dredge material into a bowl and inserted two strips of the sample conductive material into the dredge material. An electrical charge (6 amps, direct current) was then applied to the two strips. The dredge material began to dry on the anode side (positive) and became wetter on the cathode side (negative), although at a slightly slower rate then would have been the case if  a metal had been used.  An additional field experiment on a larger scale produced similar results. These initial results show promise. Correspondence with Eeonyx Corporation revealed that the capabilities of conductive polymers are quickly expanding. Evidence suggests that conductive polymers are both more inexpensive and environmentally safer than similar technologies that use materials such as carbon black and graphite. The conductive polymers used in our experiments can be made to be biodegradable, and have been approved for medical use (Eeonyx Corporation). With advances in conductive-polymer technology, and more research, the use of conductive polymers with E-O could become a practical application to dewater soils. BACK CONSTITUTIONAL ISSUES IN ENVIRONMENTAL LAW: THE INTERSTATE COMMMERCE CLAUSE Alexander Harris Majors: Environmental Studies and Political Science Advisor: Ira Feldman, Legal Studies, Wharton Article 1, Section 8, of the U.S. Constitution gives Congress the power to regulate commerce “among the several states.”  Commonly known as the “Commerce Clause,” this line of the Constitution has been used by Congress to justify everything from labor regulations to civil rights laws and even environmental laws.  Recently, Congress’ use of the Commerce Clause to protect the environmental has been challenged in a number of federal court cases including: Solid Waste Agency of Northern Cook County v. United States Army Corps of Engineers (2001), and National Association of Home Builders v. Babbitt (1997).  In the first case, SWANCC v. Army Corps of Engineers (2001), the Army Corps of Engineers was using the Clean Water Act to try to regulate disposal of waste into a small, isolated body of water on the basis that it was used by migratory birds.  The Corps claimed that they could regulate any body of water used by birds under the Commerce Clause, since bird watching is a large multi-state industry.  In this case, the court avoided the real constitutional issue and ruled that the body of water was not covered, since it was not the original intent of Congress that the Clean Water Act protect all wetlands.  But the case is still important, since it has sparked more challenges to the interstate-commerce clause, and media attention surrounding the case has played a role in changing people’s views of the type of environmental regulation that the federal government should be imposing. The second case, NAHB v. Babbitt (1997), is one of several recent cases challenging the reliance of the Endangered Species Act on the Commerce Clause.  In this case, a three-judge panel ruled 2-1 to uphold the Endangered Species Act even when it applied, as in this case, to a species whose habitat lies completely within one state.  The two judges who voted in favor of the Endangered Species Act did so for different reasons, and the dissent opinion rails against this liberal use of the Commerce Clause.  So far there has been little consistency in lower court rulings involving the Endangered Species Act, but these arguments will eventually be taken into account if the Supreme Court decides to rule on one of these cases.  My thesis examines both of these cases and how they have affected specific environmental laws.  I will also look at the media attention surrounding those cases, since often the press does not report such rulings accurately. BACK FINDING PROPERTY RIGHTS IN INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL AGREEMENTS: SOLUTIONS TO THE “TRAGEDY OF THE GLOBAL COMMONS” TWO CASE STUDIES Nathaniel Kane Majors: Environmental Studies and Philosophy, Politics & Economics Advisor: Stanley Laskowski, Earth & Environmental Science “Whatever is common to the greatest number has the least care bestowed on it.”  - Aristotle The relationship between property and care encapsulates the major issue in international environmental management.  Resources that do not fall under the jurisdiction of any state may fall under no jurisdiction at all.  If no one owns the benefits that can be gained from the resources, and no one owns the damage that can be done to a resource, then no one can stop resources from being unsustainably exploited.  The only way to gain economically is to increase exploitation.  Anyone who decides to conserve the resource by reducing his/her own consumption is immediately betrayed by those who take the conserved share for themselves.  This is the “tragedy of the commons.” The tragedy of the commons is most apparent in the international arena.  In the absence of a global government with enforcement powers, the capacity of actors to define rights, rules, and duties becomes costly and difficult.  The effects of this non-property regime can be seen in the deterioration of many environmental resources that do not lie under the jurisdiction of a state.  In this paper I explore the ways that two international environmental agreements have assigned property rights.  The important conceptual findings are as follows: Resources without defined property rights are subject to overuse and eventual destruction. However, defining property rights can help give actors incentives to conserve resources and use them efficiently. On the other hand, different regimes of property-rights enforcement are effective in different situations. Finally, a property-rights scheme is only as useful as its enforcement and monitoring. Enforcement and monitoring are very difficult to achieve in the international arena; thus, property solutions are reached only with difficulty in this arena. The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea attempted to increase national sovereignty over marine resources, while saving some areas far from national shores as the “common heritage of mankind.”  I have studied the failure of this strategy to conserve fisheries stocks effectively.  The International Whaling Commission has declared a moratorium on commercial whaling.  I have studied the strengths and weaknesses of that moratorium, and conclude that the only way to maintain a global whale population may be to eliminate whale harvesting entirely. BACK LOCAL FOOD DISTRIBUTION IN PHILADELPHIA: REVIVING LOCALLY-PRODUCED AND COMMUNITY-SUPPORTED AGRICULTURE Emma Kirwan Majors: Environmental Studies and Health & Socities Advisor: Janet Chrzan, Anthropology Philadelphia is an urban role model for the support of locally-grown and community-supported agriculture. Locally-produced means food that is grown or raised by local or regional farmers; however, strong debate exists on defining “local.”  Community-supported means that local produce is purchased by local consumers through various media, including: community supported agriculture (CSA), farmers' markets, farm stands, pick-your-own farms, restaurants, small food businesses, cooperatives, buying clubs, and supermarkets.  Although Philadelphia was largely sustained by local farmers as late as the start of the 20th century, routes for local food distribution have been eroded by the industrial food industry and are just recently being reconstructed.  In this thesis I will cover four main elements: 1) a brief history of food production in the United States and Philadelphia and the agricultural transitions that have taken place during this history; 2) models for local food distribution in three U.S. cities other than Philadelphia; 3) the current network for local food distribution in Philadelphia; and 4) a description and analysis of current projects for developing the local food system in Philadelphia.  I consulted academic, peer-reviewed, and grey literature on this topic.  Most academic literature focuses on international, developing world, or historical perspectives and models, and therefore has served as background material for my thesis.  Information such as research studies and educational, promotional, and marketing materials published by non-profit organizations has contributed to my analysis of local food systems in Philadelphia and three other U.S. cities.  The majority of my research on Philadelphia’s local food system has been gathered through interviews with farmers, restaurateurs, buyers, and distributors, and an analysis of sustainable agriculture organizations in Philadelphia and the materials they publish.  My study shows the ways in which Philadelphia’s local distribution system is unique, and identifies the role of sustainable agriculture organizations in developing local food networks.   BACK LIVING DOWNSTREAM: WHAT WASTEWATER REUSE TELLS US ABOUT CURRENT DRINKING-WATER PRACTICES Niva Kramek Major: Environmental Studies with a concentration in Sociology Submatriculant in the Master of Environmental Studies program Advisor: Stanley Laskowski, Earth & Environmental Science The standards to which water is cleaned and treated have long been the subject of discussion, regulation, and compromise. Assessment of the public health and safety risks of treated drinking water is necessarily an uncertain science; in countries such as the United States – with large populations, varied water sources, and enormous varieties of contaminants – no set of standards can remove entirely all public-health and environmental hazards from treated drinking water. However, current standards are particularly inadequate and must be revised. Recognition of new hazards – microbial and chemical – demand that the agencies responsible for enforcing water quality adjust current standards to address emerging threats. As the National Research Council has stated: “Continuing vigilance is necessary to assure that important drinking water contaminants are identified and appropriately addressed.” As waterborne-disease outbreaks become more frequent, and as limitations in current monitoring practices become insurmountable, a pressing need exists to reassess drinking water standards, treatment, and monitoring. This reassessment should acknowledge the impact that wastewater has on drinking water. Surface and ground water believed to be free from human pollution often are impaired by wastewater discharges. Although wastewater treatment has dramatically improved, municipal effluent continues to be a threat to human health – particularly when its presence is unacknowledged. For this reason, benefits can be derived from the water-treatment processes used in areas that not only acknowledge the presence of wastewater in their drinking-water sources, but also reuse treated wastewater as drinking water. In this project I examine the extent to which the monitoring practices and treatment processes in the reuse of treated wastewater for drinking water differ from current drinking-water treatment in the United States, and how water-quality standards should be adjusted accordingly. I have also examined the extent to which wastewater is currently reused in the United States, in a manner that is often defined as unplanned. I have also studied the microbiological and chemical contents of treated municipal effluents and associated health risks. Wastewater reuse “involves considerations of public health and also requires close examinations of infrastructure and facilities planning, wastewater treatment and plant siting, treatment process reliability, economic and financial analyses, and water quality management [and] stringency in environmental protection and waste discharge.”   The same stringency and reliability requirements should be applied to facilities designed to treat what appear to be uncontaminated sources of drinking water. 6Committee on Drinking Water Contaminants, National Research Council. Setting Priorities for Drinking Water Contaminants. Washington, D.C: National Academy Press, 1999. p. 1 Asano, Takashi. “Wastewater Reuse for Non-Potable Applications: An Introduction.” Proceedings of the International Symposium on Efficient Water Use in Urban Areas: Innovative Ways of Finding Water for Cities. Osaka/Shiga: UNEP International Environmental Technology Centre, 1999. pp 123-131. p. 124 BACK THE HULA VALLEY: A CASE STUDY OF CHANGING WATER POLICIES IN ISRAEL Meira Levinson Majors: Environmental Studies and English Submatriculant:  Master of Arts in English Advisor: Karen Rile Water is an extremely scarce and valuable resource in the Middle East.  Because of its scarcity, water is the source of much conflict, and decisions regarding water allocation have immediate ramifications on inter-country relations, specifically between Israel and the Arab states.  Israel’s water policy is especially important because water sources such as the Sea of Galilee and two major underground aquifers fall partially within Israel’s post-1967 borders.  At the beginning of its statehood, Israel’s priority in terms of water use was agriculture; for example, the government built the National Water Carrier and Yarkon-Negev Pipeline in order to convey water to the southern, desert part of the state.  This agricultural focus promoted high rates of water consumption.  Israel’s control and use of this water has been a source of tension and, at times, armed struggle, between Israel and its neighbors.  Hence, the possibility of a shift in Israel’s water policy could signify future changes in Israeli-Arab relations. The Hula Valley can be used as a case study of such a shift in the water policy of Israel.  In the 1950’s, Israel drained the Hula wetlands.  This drainage was part of the project to build the National Water Carrier and the Yarkon-Negev Pipeline.  The destruction of the Hula Valley wetland demonstrated Israel’s priorities at the time: Israel was focused on transporting water to the south for settlement development, and on creating additional agricultural land, regardless of the environmental cost.  In 1994, however, Israel began a project to rehabilitate the Hula Valley, in order to restore what could be salvaged of the original ecosystem.  This restoration project reduced the amount of water available for the Water Carrier and pipeline.  This recent action may represent a more fundamental shift in Israeli policy; through its water policies, Israel may be reducing emphasis on the dream of “making the desert bloom”, and focusing instead on conserving Israel’s water resources.  BACK WATER PRIVITIZATION IN THE DEVELOPING WORLD: HOPE FOR THE FUTURE OR DISASTER FOR THE POOR? Eamon Lorincz Majors: Environmental Studies and International Relations Advisor: Dr. Elizabeth Bloodgood-Ames In the early 1980’s a movement to limit governmental control over global economic markets started to gain momentum.  Following the end of the Cold War and the fall of the Berlin Wall, waves of privatization and market liberalization swept through not only the states of the former Soviet Union but across the entire globe.  While these privatization efforts have encompassed a vast array of industries, from banking sectors to automobile industries, the most incendiary political battles arise over the privatization, or attempted privatization, of industries considered by many to be both collective goods and natural monopolies, such as the privatization of electric and water utilities.  In the first section of my thesis, I addressed the issue of the privatization of water utilities in developing countries by answering the following question: under what circumstances can the privatization of state-run water utilities in the developing world improve the long-term service offered by these institutions, and thus provide economic and social benefits for the state’s population?  In order to answer this question, I analyzed the geopolitical and structural differences between two water-privatization case studies (of Dakar, Senegal and Buenos Aires, Argentina).  The results of this analysis may help the international community to pinpoint the most effective structure for the privatization of water utilities and to determine those circumstances in which the privatization process can be harnessed to increase economic efficiency and, thus, potentially improve rates of access to safe water and safeguard the health of millions. In the second section of my thesis, I explored the issue of water-sector reform, not through the lens of economic efficiency, but in terms of which structures can best serve the needs of the poorest and most neglected communities: namely, rural villages and urban slums.  In particular, I examined several other models of water-sector reform that eschew this centralized, corporate-run model of water privatization and focus on decentralizing control, building local capacity, increasing public participation, and employing networks of local suppliers instead of relying on multinational entities. I then focused on a case study of Senegal in order to answer a second question: in what situations and to what extent can the use of locally-based initiatives—as opposed to a centralized utility, either public or private in nature—more appropriately serve the needs of the poorest communities? BACK PALEOBOTANICAL RECONSTRUCTION OF CONTINENTAL PALEOCLIMATE DURING THE PALEOCENE/EOCENE THERMAL MAXIMUM Elizabeth Lovelock Majors: Environmental Studies and Geology Advisor: Scott Wing, Smithsonian Institution  The Paleocene/Eocene Thermal Maximum (PETM) was a period of sudden global warming that occurred at the boundary between the Paleocene and Eocene epochs, approximately 55 million years ago.  The PETM is associated with the rapid (<10,000 years) release of a large mass (~4500 Gt) of isotopically light carbon (Zachos et al. 2005).  This event is one of the best geologic analogs to predictions of anthropogenic global warming (Wing 1997).  Climate change on the continents during the PETM is not well understood.  In this study I report on a fossil flora from the middle of the PETM time interval.  The fossils come from the Bighorn Basin, Wyoming.  I separated the collection of fossil leaves into morphotypes based on venation and shape features, and then calculated the relative abundance of each leaf type.  I also used the sizes and shapes of the fossil leaves to reconstruct the temperature and precipitation conditions under which the fossil flora grew.  My new climate reconstruction adds greater confidence to previous reconstructions of PETM climate, and increases understanding of climate change during the PETM.  Greater knowledge of climate change during the PETM improves our ability to understand future climate changes that may occur as a consequence of increased burning of fossil fuels. BACK HUMAN RECREATION IN THESTREAMS OF THE CARIBBEAN NATIONAL FOREST Jose Marcial Majors: Environmental Studies with a concentration in Biology Advisor: Frederick Scatena, Earth & Environmental Science Many recreational areas, like the Caribbean National Forest (CNF) in NE Puerto Rico, contain streams which are heavily used by visitors. As a result of this recreational use, these streams are adversely affected on various levels. I have studied patterns of human recreation in the streams of the CNF, and the impact of that recreation both on the people themselves and on the stream ecology. To determine the channel habitat needed for in-stream recreation, I observed people who were safely wading, swimming and jumping into the water at 8 sites on rivers in the CNF. I measured the depth, velocity and channel character of the recreation sites to characterize the habitats of these popular recreational locations. The habitats used by recreationists were then compared to habitats of common aquatic species in the streams to determine the potential impacts of in-stream recreation on aquatic organisms. I assessed the impact on aquatic life, specifically that of the Atya shrimp population, by comparing the shrimp life history and survival patterns with the physical parameters that characterize the micro-habitats where people recreate. The data suggest that only waders come in direct contact with shrimp, but the impacts are minimal because most shrimp migrate at night when people are not in the stream. To evaluate the impact that in-stream recreation may have on water quality, the concentrations of 13 constituents measured in water sampled above and below a popular swimming location in the rainforest were compared. The difference in concentrations of those constituents at sites both above and below the waterfall would indicate whether human activity contributes to those concentrations, because recreational use of the stream is heavy below, but uncommon above, the waterfall. Nitrogen was the most significant anthropogenic pollutant in these waters. However, even the elevated Nitrogen concentrations remain below the level that is considered a risk to human health. The frequency of specific channel conditions that encourage different types of recreation in the Puente Roto site was determined with the use of special depth and velocity hydrographs. I learned that people can safely swim and jump in Puente Roto 50 -70% of the time, and that stream velocity is a more important factor in controlling recreational use than is water depth. BACK MANAGING THE WATER OF THE AMERICAN WEST: THE POLITICAL, ECONOMIC, SOCIAL, AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATIONS OF THE HOOVER DAM Sarah Martiny Majors: Environmental Studies & History & Political Science Advisor: Robert Giegengack, Earth & Environmental Science The 1400-mile-long Colorado River has proven to be the life source of the Western region of the United States. The hot, dry climate of much of the West prevented agricultural production in the rich soils of the region until irrigation was introduced to offer the promise of economic sustainability for Western settlements and communities. The Desert Lands Act of 1862 directly supported the capitalistic foundations being laid in the West. This legislation allotted 160 acres of land to each individual who promised to irrigate the land for agricultural production. The Reclamation Act created the Bureau of Reclamation, which planned irrigation projects. Instead of benefiting individual homesteaders and farmers, these laws favored powerful business interests and wealthy landowners who were able to create monopolies of land and water in the West. At the time, it was believed that water was a commodity which should be controlled through human technology in order to be profitable and useful for human interests. Extreme flooding of the Colorado River from 1905 to 1907 prompted the federal government to secure the river to protect communities and wealthy agricultural interests in the region. The conviction was strongly held that the only way to control the Colorado River effectively, to prevent devastating floods, to provide farmers with consistent quantities of water to irrigate their crops, and to assure that the public was the primary beneficiary of irrigation projects, was to build a dam. By 1922 the Fall-Davis Report was submitted to Congress; it detailed the geological conditions of the Colorado River and recommended building a large dam across the Colorado River at Boulder Canyon to irrigate the Imperial Valley through the All-American Canal project. Although the project was opposed by various groups, notably the state of Arizona, President Herbert Hoover authorized $165 million to build the Hoover Dam and the All-American Canal in the Boulder Canyon Project Act of 1929. Construction of the dam took place between 1931 and 1936 under the management of six construction companies with a workforce of over 5000 men. The Hoover Dam was considered the greatest feat of modern technology, engineering, and human accomplishment until that time. While the ostensible technical purpose of the dam was stabilization of the Colorado River, there were other motivating factors behind the creation of the dam. Politicians used the dam to incite feelings of nationalistic pride, and as a public-works project benefiting all of society during the Great Depression. Despite reports indicating that there would be future economic and environmental problems resulting from the dam, media sources and business interests also championed the dam and its ability to provide enough water to irrigate lands for profitable agricultural production. Even though the economic and environmental consequences of the dam have been greater than anticipated, the Hoover Dam can be credited with the population expansion and economic growth of much of the Western United States. BACK ECUADORIAN ECOTOURISM DEVELOPMENT: ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY, CULTURE, AND EDUCATION Bryan Tomás Benitez McClelland Major: Environmental Studies with a concentration in Anthropology Sub-matriculant in the Master of Environmental Studies Program   With its unique geography, abundance of flora and fauna, and ecological diversity, Ecuador has the potential to become a world leader in ecotourism.  However, even with proper management and the involvement of government institutions, “green” tourism activities can and do have negative effects on natural resources.  With Ecuador’s turbulent political atmosphere, conservation efforts are inhibited and the future of its ecotourism industry is unclear.  Major problems that Ecuadorian ecotourism development faces stem from a long history of political corruption.  Ecotourism is an extremely important and profitable industry in Ecuador that has been growing at an exponential rate, adding pressure to an already stressed and deficient infrastructure.  Domestic population growth, ongoing urbanization, persistent poverty, dramatic increases in the number of annual visitors, and migration to the Galápagos Islands will continue to put extra pressure on the country’s natural resources.  The environment is at risk, and food and energy are in low supply.  The overuse of popular sites, especially in the Galápagos Islands, a pristine ecosystem with arguably the greatest biological diversity on Earth, degrades the environment and wildlife habitat.  As a result, many ecological functions and amenities that make Ecuadorian sites desirable tourist destinations are lost.  To ensure the healthy, long-term growth of Ecuador’s tourism industry it is imperative that the government manage and maintain a sustainable-development plan that fully engages all Ecuadorian and international stakeholders.  In this study I review past and current efforts in Ecuadorian ecotourism development, and analyze the Ecuadorian government’s involvement with and influence on the development of ecotourism.  I also review the effect of this development on local businesses, communities, and environmental-education efforts.  The focus of my study is the Galápagos archipelago because of its importance to Ecuador, the scientific community, and the ecotourism industry worldwide.  I conclude with recommendations for improving the longevity and sustainability of the ecotourism industry in Ecuador.  BACK IMPACT OF THE URANIUM-MINING INDUSTRY ON THE NAVAJO NATION Caitlin McElroy Majors: Environmental Studies and History Uranium mining on the Navajo Reservation created an environmental-justice disaster, which has paradoxically helped to incite the Navajo Nation to achieve considerable self-determination within the United States.  The United States’ need for uranium to fuel the nuclear weapons and energy program of the years immediately following World War II brought the Atomic Energy Commission to establish an extensive mining operation on the Southwestern edge of the Colorado Plateau. Many of the mines established were on or near the Navajo Indian reservation. The Navajo Nation received little share in the profits, due to poorly executed lease and royalty contracts. Most of the uranium mines employed almost entirely Navajo men who were never told of the known health hazards from radiation exposure. The Navajo people were desperate to work, the AEC was driven to produce uranium as quickly as possible, and the mining companies working for the AEC wanted the largest possible profits. Despite pressure from the Public Health Service (PHS), whose scientists had been gathering data revealing dangerous levels of radiation exposure, no regulations were imposed for nearly thirty years. By this time, health problems predicted by PHS had become apparent, and uranium workers were dying of cancers and lung diseases. The horror of this spreading sickness spurred the Navajo people to act and fight for justice. After a long battle, they finally achieved acknowledgment that the U.S. government had negligently failed to protect the health of uranium miners. The testimonies of the miners, their widows, and their families tell heartbreaking tales of the anger, frustration, and sadness the Navajo people have experienced, feeling betrayed by the government, losing family members, and being left to live in toxic environments. Driven by this range of emotions, the Navajo Nation has changed significantly. The Tribal Council has asserted authority in the creation of new leases and regulations to ensure that the Navajo people benefit from the extraction of their natural resources. Individuals worked to unite communities in the fight for justice and respect. Navajo government organizations, such as the office of Abandoned Mine Lands, have even set new standards for reclamation and community-redevelopment projects.  While public-welfare circumstances at the start of uranium mining enabled many agencies to exploit the Navajo people, new circumstances created by changes in national policy and Navajo initiatives have made the Navajo Nation a more wary and self-determined community. Unfortunately, this long-awaited goal and respected sovereignty has come at a very high price.  BACK ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT IN HOSPITALS IN SOUTHEASTERN PENNSYLVANIA Andrea Michel and Sarra-Zoe Reich (see Reich and Michel on the next page) Majors: Environmental Studies and Health & Societies The purpose of our research is to establish an understanding of environmental management in hospitals in southeastern Pennsylvania as regulated by the Environmental Protection Agency (USA) and the Department of Environmental Protection (PA).  Our focus is to assist these agencies in their efforts toward gathering information on the understanding and use of environmental-management systems and efforts in local hospitals. The importance of environmental sustainability in hospitals is crucial, not only in terms of compliance with existing laws, but in supporting additional efforts and programs now needed to establish an environmentally friendly result. Our research has demonstrated that there is a strong need for more awareness and execution of environmental programs and procedures in local hospitals.  However, this is a difficult subject to address, because hospitals consider other issues to take precedence over environmental friendliness.  With this in mind, our approach with the EPA and DEP has been to demonstrate how environmental management can be beneficial for hospitals, both economically and from a public-relations perspective. We have met with these agencies on a regular basis, conducted analyses and interviews with environmental managers within local hospitals, and developed incentives for hospitals to comply with environmental-management initiatives.  Through these efforts, we have gained a better understanding of the scope of environmental management in local hospitals, and we have aided regulatory agencies and hospitals to establish better working relationships to enhance environmental management, compliance assistance, and pollution prevention. BACK THE FUTURE OF CERRO RICO POTOSI Irina Zhorov Major: Environmental Studies with Geology concentration Advisor: Edward Doheny, Earth & Environmental Science Cerro Rico of Potosí lies in Bolivia’s polymetallic-vein deposit belt, located in the Western Cordillera. It is the world’s largest silver deposit and has been mined continuously at least since 1545. In the centuries of exploitation, Bolivia has gone through many governments, but two factors have remained constant despite the multifarious regimes – the importance of Cerro Rico in Bolivia’s economy, and the lack of environmental management within the State. This has resulted in a level of environmental contamination which poses a risk to human health, the ecosystem, and the economic infrastructure. Cerro Rico is underlain by Palaeozoic and Cretaceous marine rocks of the Cerro Rico Formation, which consists of the Pailaviri/Venus and Caracoles members.  This complex of coarse-grained breccia and tuffaceous siltstone is intruded by the Cerro Rico Stock, a high-K rhyodacite. The stock is capped by a thin silicified zone enriched in silver. Ore deposits accumulated in the form of veins, emplaced after stock intrusion. The geometric center of the deposit is characterized by high-temperature minerals, including cassiterite, wolframite, bismuthinite, and arsenopyrite, while peripheral parts of the deposit are characterized by a lower temperature assemblage including sphalerite, galena, Pb-sulfosalts, and Ag-minerals.  Currently under study for exploitation are pallacos, deposits that lie in heaps of coarse gravel on the sloping flanks of the Cerro Rico Mountain. Tailing from the mines and processing plants have been, and continue to be, deposited directly into the streams without any prior treatment. The waste goes into the La Ribera River and the Tarapaya River, both of which run into the Pilcomayo River, the largest river system in southern Bolivia, and one of the most economically valuable rivers in South America. The sediments and water of the Pilcomayo and its tributaries have been shown to carry high levels of pollution close to Cerro Rico, and lower levels farther from the site. Soil, fish, and the human population are also affected by the toxic levels of waste dumped daily. Bolivia has passed legislation – Environmental Law No. 1333, passed in 1992, and the Mining Code, Law No. 1777, passed in 1997 – to deal with growing environmental concerns. So far the effect of those laws has been minimal, due to the inadequate enforcement capacity of the State, the lack of necessary funds, the inadequacy of available technology, the absence of environmental awareness, and the lack of a sustainable-management strategy. Traditional mining practices cannot be used to exploit the waning Cerro Rico deposit much longer, and the rate of dumping of toxic materials adjacent to the mining center is now higher than ever. Potosí, one of the richest cities in the world in the 17th Century, is already the poorest and least healthy prefecture in Bolivia, the poorest country in Latin America. Unless remediation practices are instituted in the mining sector, both the economy and the environment of Potosí will deteriorate further. One option to reverse the decline of the environment around this mining district is to engage mining companies with responsible practice records to mine old tailings and pallaco deposits. Charging fees for emissions of effluents, setting up a Decontamination Fund, adopting cleaner processes/technology, and educating the mining industry about the importance of sustainable development are all feasible and effective strategies that could ameliorate the situation in Potosí. BACK COMMUNITY-BASED CONSERVATION: AN EFFECTIVE STRATEGY OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT Lauren Bome Majors: Environmental Studies and Economics Community-based conservation is a relatively new method of environmental management that allows for sustainable use of the natural resources with which a community is endowed. If thoughtfully conceived, community-based conservation ventures utilize resources to provide economic benefits for local communities, in the process providing an incentive for those communities to conserve their profitable resources. This approach is particularly effective under circumstances that prevail in developing nations where the land is often communally owned, people are highly dependent on the land for their livelihood and subsistence, and there are few alternative sources of income. The first and most extensive ventures have taken place in Third World Nations where the economic viability of community conservation is the driving force in gaining support for this strategy. However, developed nations such as the United States have begun to take steps toward increasing community involvement in establishing conservation policy. The success of community-based conservation is fundamentally dependent on the participation of the local population in environmental and conservational decision-making processes. Regardless of the socio-economic level of a nation, community-based conservation has proven to be a more effective and efficient method of environmental management than any method used heretofore. By assessing the community-based conservation efforts that are being pursued in both developed and developing countries, we can learn how to create even more successful projects to be implemented in other regions. If we are concerned with the future of our environment and its natural resources, and if we aspire to optimal protection of those resources, we must engage significant involvement of civil society. This goal can be attained through community-based conservation. BACK PSYCHOLOGICAL BARRIERS TO THE USE OF RECYCLED WATER Brandon Cavanaugh Majors: Environmental Studies (Psychology concentration) and Economics Recycled water, or wastewater that has been cleaned to the condition in which it is safe to drink, represents a potential alternative source of drinking water that has been developed in response to a growing water shortage. To investigate lay attitudes toward the prospect of consuming such water, I collected information from 300 surveys. Overall, the data indicate that, despite the fact that recycled water can be proven safe to drink, many people reject the idea of consuming such water, while others who would be willing to drink it assert that they would nonetheless be uncomfortable about doing so. My research examines the bases of the rejection of and discomfort about the prospect of consuming "recycled water" with the ultimate (future) goal of trying to understand how to produce greater public acceptance of recycled water as a viable, clean, and safe alternative to current forms of drinking water. BACK ENVIROTECTURE: GREEN BUILDING DESIGN IN CENTER CITY PHILADELPHIA Naomi Cole Majors: Environmental Studies and Architecture The increasing population density within the world’s cities presents an opportunity for architects and developers to reverse the trends of environmentally destructive building practices. Experts in the field of sustainable urbanism indicate that smart growth requires developing in already dense areas and designing buildings that minimize their impact on the environment. Philadelphia, which has some of the oldest housing stock in the country, must take this approach as its leaders face major development decisions in coming years. Europe has set standards for these kinds of projects, and the US building industry is being transformed by the introduction of a new standard for designing and assessing green buildings. Research of three case studies, Museum Place South (Portland, OR), the Denver Dry Goods Building (Denver Colorado), and the Plaza at PPL Center (Allentown, PA), provides useful insights into the feasibility of green building features and sustainable-urbanism strategies, informing designs for a green-building development in Center City Philadelphia. The success of these projects suggests that similar green building and sustainable urbanism efforts could be applied successfully in Center City Philadelphia. A vacant lot on the corner of 3rd Street and Arch Street in Philadelphia provides an excellent study site. I undertook detailed analysis and documentation of that site to develop a design proposal that integrates residential and retail units into a three-building complex that considers site sustainability, energy and water efficiency, material and resource consumption, and the quality of the indoor environment. I produced drawings, diagrams, and a scale model to demonstrate the viability of this approach. BACK FAIR-TRADE COFFEE AS A SUSTAINABLE ALTERNATIVE: A FOCUS ON THE CONSUMER HABITS OF STUDENTS AT THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA Elizabeth (Polly) Davis Majors: Environmental Studies and History Coffee is the most significant export for many developing countries and second only to oil as a source of foreign exchange in all world trade. Throughout history the coffee market has fluctuated dramatically, leading to economic instability of coffee producers and coffee-producing countries. Many larger producers have turned to high-yield varieties, which are grown in full sun, a practice that leads to deforestation and general environmental degradation. This degradation in turn affects traditional social structures and leads to more instability. Fair trade is a system of certification which creates a set of standards ensuring sustainability environmentally, socially, and economically by guaranteeing a minimum contract price in exchange for sustainable practices. The fair-trade market has grown significantly over the past decade, and brings a larger percent of total profit than its percent in volume of the total coffee market. The majority of University of Pennsylvania students are aware of the availability of fair-trade coffee, but 80% are most likely to buy "non-specialty coffees". However, a majority of students would be interested in seeing more fair-trade products on campus. Penn students reflect national values in the importance they place on quality over social or environmental issues. Therefore, there is a significant niche, both nationally and on the Penn campus, for fair-trade products, but this market will be limited by the number of people for whom low price remains the principal consumer priority. BACK US FOREIGN POLICY IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE MIDDLE EAST: THE ROLE OF NATURAL RESOURCES Claire Duncan Majors: Environmental Studies and Political Science The United States claimed the role of dominant Hegemon in the western hemisphere more than a hundred years ago. For some time, but particularly in the Cold War era of the 20th century, the U.S. government has not hesitated to intervene in the territory of the third world countries it wished to keep "on our side". These actions are most often explained by the ideology of spreading democracy and protecting the world from Communism. While an ideological component was present and important, there were also substantial economic investments in the natural resources of these places - largely agricultural potential in Latin America and oil in the Middle East. In this paper I examine the role that natural resources has assumed in shaping action and policy in relationships between the United States and a few of these countries. I consider interventions in Guatemala and Iran in an effort to compare involvement in Latin America and the Middle East, and I explore natural-resource aspects of the most recent U.S. action in Iraq. In 1947, the United States declared the Truman Doctrine – a commitment to aid all governments threatened by "leftist insurrections". The Truman Doctrine was more or less a blank check to fight Communism. In the same year, American Foreign Service and National Security underwent a massive reorganization, out of which came the CIA and the National Security Council (NSC). While a number of interventions and covert operations took place in the following decades, I focus in this paper on events in Guatemala and Iran in the 1950's and the operations in Iran and Nicaragua in the 1970's. BACK PROMOTING DEMOCRACY THROUGH HIGHER EDUCATIONN Paige Fitzgerald Majors: Environmental Studies and Economics The mission statements of Western institutions of higher education typically employ language such as "developing future leaders" and "preparing students for responsible citizenship". In a study examining "public pronouncements that U.S. colleges and universities make in their catalogues and mission statements", Alexander Astin concluded that the overarching mission of the U.S. academic community is to serve society and promote and strengthen the democratic system. However, the remnants of Plato's educational philosophy, which centers around the superiority of pure theory and pure science, still influences the Western educational system. By all accounts, the modern university experience focuses on the pursuit of disciplines and job placement rather than on education for responsible citizenship. In an attempt to return institutions of higher education to their democratic missions, a group of Penn scholars, along with education leaders from the international community, founded the International Consortium for Higher Education, Civic Engagement and Democracy (ICHE). The Consortium was founded with the goal of documenting, understanding, and advancing "the contributions of higher education to democracy on the campus, in the local community, and in the wider society" through international research, conferences, and the sharing of "best practices". The hope is that, by taking this cause to the international community, educational leaders will have the opportunity to share and expand upon others' ideas and to model programs after those at peer institutions. Furthermore, the ICHE has potential to make a drastic impact in fledgling democracies where universities have the potential to restructure society around civic missions. For these universities, access to an international community of scholars and education leaders committed to promoting democracy, as well as research documenting successful practices, will be invaluable as those institutions seek to educate their students for democratic participation. Penn continues to play a crucial role in the ICHE, serving as its organizational center, and is in the perfect position to spearhead the expansion of the Consortium. President Gutmann's recent inauguration, themed "Rising to the Challenges of a Diverse Democracy", has further excited Penn's committed champions of this civic cause. Penn serves as an excellent model of civic engagement of a university, a fact that has achieved national recognition: in 2003, U.S. News and World Report rated Penn number one in the country for Service Learning (May, 2003). There have been several movements within Penn focused on increasing democratic awareness in local communities. One such effort, Penn Leads the Vote, succeeded in increasing voter turnout for the November 2004 Presidential elections by an unprecedented 280%. Furthermore, Penn's Center for Community Partnerships (CCP) serves as a model program for democratic education. The service-learning programs run through CCP bridge the gap between Penn and West Philadelphia by incorporating service into the classroom experience. By bringing Penn's broader community into a student's educational experience, Penn hopes to educate students for democratic citizenship and civic leadership. Penn is ready to lead by example and to catalyze an international movement challenging institutions of higher education to reexamine their missions and strive to educate democratic citizens. BACK TOBACCO AT PENN: PROBLEMS, PERCEPTIONS, AND A LOOK AT THE FUTURE Spencer W. Friedman Majors: Environmental Studies and Communications Smoking is one of the most harmful personal behaviors in which a person can engage. The harmful effects of tobacco have been ingrained in every American college student's head through school and the media from a very young age. The percentage of college freshmen that do not know that smoking is a harmful activity is extremely low. And, although smoking rates among American youth have declined over the past few decades, an alarming number of college students in the United States are still "lighting up". In the past decade, the tobacco industry has focused and intensified its marketing and promotional efforts on the college audience. By targeting college students, the tobacco industry is 1) attempting to sell to the youngest legal audience, and 2) getting its addictive product into the hands of individuals who are still extremely susceptible to social pressures. The tobacco industry has tried to expand its presence on college campuses through promotional give-aways, sponsoring events at college bars and clubs, and direct marketing. Currently, about 29% of American college students smoke cigarettes . The situation on the University of Pennsylvania (Penn) campus is particularly interesting. Penn is known for attracting the best and the brightest students from across the country and the world. Many of the undergraduates at Penn will go on to be captains of industry, doctors, and important leaders in their respective professions. The percentage of Penn students who are unaware of the harmful effects of tobacco is close to 0%. Nevertheless, previous surveys have found that Penn students smoke at a level near the national rate . If Penn students are the "crème-de-la crème", shouldn't they know better? Is Penn a unique case, or are all college campuses the same? What is the University doing to reduce the number of Penn students who smoke? In this paper I investigate the factors influencing smoking rates on American college campuses, and I evaluate the different methods, programs, and policies that have been utilized by colleges and universities to reduce smoking among students. Finally, I analyze the tobacco situation at the University of Pennsylvania, draw comparisons to other American universities, evaluate Penn's tobacco policies and smoking-cessation campaigns, and present a list of recommendations to improve the University's anti-tobacco efforts and to reduce the percentage of smokers on Penn's campus in future years. BACK DEVELOPMENT OF EFFECTIVE SOCIAL BEHAVIORS IN THE BROWN-HEADED COWBIRD (Molothrus ater): HATCH-DATE FACTOR Irene Godoy Majors: Environmental Studies (Biology Concentration) and Psychology The Brown-headed cowbird is a highly social songbird species in which juveniles require social learning to develop the patterns of behavior typical of their species. Past research has shown the importance of exposure to experienced adult populations in determining the subsequent reproductive success of juveniles, but little is known about other factors that might impact the behavioral development of these juveniles prior to this social-learning process. We hypothesized that there are factors prior to exposure to experienced adults that impact the ability of juvenile cowbirds to develop effective social behaviors. Specifically, in our study we sought to find out whether hatch-date alone would affect the way in which our birds behaved. To do so, we tracked the development of communication and social behaviors in captive hand-raised cowbirds during the first year of their lives. We kept records of their physical development, social interactions, and song production. Our results showed a large difference in the developmental trajectories of our birds based on hatch-date alone. Cowbirds hatched earlier in the breeding season were larger and had lower mortality rates than those hatched later in the breeding season. The amount of undirected song sung by our birds did not differ significantly based on when they where hatched. However, early-hatch males sang a significantly larger proportion of their song toward other males - a pattern of song use important in predicting which males will be more successful during the breeding season - than did late-hatch males. Furthermore, there was a direct correlation between the ages of our birds and the proportion of song that they sung toward other males. Our data indicate that there are factors - prior even to hatching - that affect the physical and, very important, behavioral development of cowbirds. We use these data to argue that it is necessary to study the developmental processes that shape how a behavior is expressed in order to understand what that particular behavior signals. BACK FLOW REGIME AND RIPARIAN VEGETATION IN THE LUQUILLO MOUNTAINS, PUERTO RICO Emmanuelle Humblet Majors: Environmental Studies with Biology concentration As the interface between aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems, riparian zones are sites of diverse, dynamic, and complex biophysical processes. The composition of riparian vegetation depends on many factors, including light conditions, substrate and edaphic conditions, and the frequency of flooding. Understanding these relationships is important to management and conservation of streams. Furthermore, quantifying the relationship between the height of minimum occurrence of different vegetation types and stream flow provides ecologists with the ability to predict flow regimes at ungauged stations, exclusively through the spatial distribution of vegetation in the riparian zone. The objective of this study is to describe the relationship between stream flow and vegetation, with the hypotheses that different flow regimes promote different vegetation types, and that there exists a consistent relationship between flooding disturbance and streamside vegetation structure. The study was conducted at 5 different USGS stream gauges, and the heights of minimum occurrences of moss, herbaceous, shrubby, and tree vegetation were recorded along tape-transects extended across the stream. Through the use of a customized Visual Basic module within Microsoft Excel and USGS historical 15-minute flood data, I determined the total number of floods, the probability of exceedance, and the average and total duration of flooding for each vegetation type. Distinct vegetation levels were found where the heights of each followed the trend of trees, shrubs, herbaceous vegetation, and moss. This study demonstrates the relationship between the flooding regime and the different vegetation types across transects, with distinct flow patterns correlating with specific vegetation types. BACK MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE IN AMERICA: LESSONS FROM THE GERMAN SYSTEM Amy Kidd Majors: Environmental Studies and German "Reduce, reuse, recycle" is the solid-waste hierarchy developed by the USEPA. Following the hierarchy, the most important aspect of solid-waste management is limiting unnecessary materials. If possible, necessary materials should be used more than once, and recyclables in the waste stream should be recycled, thus limiting what is disposed of via landfill and what is incinerated. Reducing, reusing, and recycling in the United States still has room for improvement, compared to other developed countries. Germans, for example, produce less than two thirds of the waste of Americans, per capita. The most significant reason for this large difference is that German legislation and policy not only encourage, but also mandate, waste reduction. The most prominent piece of waste-reduction legislation is the Verpackungsverordnung (packaging ordinance), which forces producers to take responsibility for the packaging materials they use, so that those materials are reused and recycled. Success of these policies is due largely to the effort of individuals, through their political support, and through their compliance. German compliance with waste- management policies has physical and cultural bases, such as population density and environmental education, respectively. The United States can improve its waste management, and increase the amount of waste reduced, reused, and recycled, by increasing incentives for waste reduction in industry, instituting a deposit system for containers, and educating the public more effectively on environmental issues. BACK DRIVING DAYTONA BEACH John Kuendig Majors: Environmental Studies with Urban Studies concentration The city of Daytona Beach, Florida , has been economically dependent on tourism for over 100 years. This industry relies solely on the presence and quality of the attractions in the area. In Daytona Beach, the beach and auto racing serve as the main attractions. In addition, the two are directly correlated. The city's rich auto-racing tradition can be traced back to the same beaches that still host millions of visitors every year. Although the racing aspect has been moved to the Daytona International Speedway, tourists and residents alike have enjoyed the right to drive and park on the beach for over a century. It is a unique experience that has earned Daytona Beach a reputation and an identification as the "World's Most Famous Beach". However, this experience has been brought into question. Not only have there been numerous efforts undertaken over the last five years to completely eliminate driving on the beach, but impacts from recent hurricanes have also left most of the 23-mile stretch un-drivable, leaving its future uncertain. Beach driving is an issue that has split the city in two. One side wants to end this tradition immediately. They argue that the negative environmental effects of driving on the beach will ultimately destroy this sensitive habitat. They believe that the constant wear and tear of beach driving cannot yield any positive results. Further, this same group believes that now is the perfect opportunity to change the identity of Daytona Beach. By moving the main activities off the beach, they envision attracting to the city a cleaner, safer, more family-oriented group of tourists. On the other hand, many residents and city officials believe that the tradition of beach driving should remain untouched. This group would like to restore the beach to its old form and resume driving as it was pursued before. Supporting this popint of view is the economics of the situation. Tourists account for a $1.5 billion influx each year. Even though the Daytona International Speedway has taken racing off of the beach, 90% of the hotels in which these fans stay are located on the beach. In Addition, Daytona's airport is too small to handle these huge crowds, so the majority of them drive their own vehicles, expecting to take them onto the beach as well. The ability to drive on the beach is a major element of the social interactions of the city. Nevertheless, my research has led me to believe that the solution lies somewhere in between these two extreme positions. Because the city depends so strongly on the dollars brought in by tourists, eliminating beach driving completely is not an economic or social option. Conversely, by taking no immediate action the city would be putting the environmental stability of the beaches in danger, and risk losing the attraction altogether. This is why it is important to meet somewhere in the middle. With proper management, the beaches can remain drivable, while still preserving the sensitive habitat as well as the identity of the city. Sensible mitigation techniques are available that could be applied in order to ensure the economic, social, and environmental future of Daytona Beach. BACK CUBA: A CASE OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT Soren Meischeid Majors: Environmental Studies and International Relations Sustainable development as a concept has become a widely recognized/accepted goal for human society ever since deteriorating environmental conditions in many parts of the world have indicated that our planetary sustainability may be at stake. Despite extensive international endorsement, many are concerned that little has been achieved on an intergovernmental basis to implement an effective strategy of sustainable development. What explains the disparity between international support of sustainable-development policies and the lack/absence of a universal model? In an ecologically interdependent world where environmental damage in one area can have global consequences, should we not coordinate a universal model for sustainable development? In this thesis, I argue that a universal model for sustainable development would not only be impractical, it would be misguided. In accordance with the United Nations Division for Sustainable Development, I assert that each country should be responsible for adopting national strategies for sustainable development, which build upon and harmonize with the various sectoral, economic, social, and environmental policies and plans that operate in that country. Sustainable development requires systems information; the crucial part is identifying the essential relationships in each system, which is largely unique to each country. Thus, contrary to traditional claims of conceptual ambiguity, the concept of sustainable development is rightly open-ended to a certain degree in order to allow for variability between cases and innovative interpretation. In the second part of this thesis I evaluate the controversial and unique but overlooked case of the Cuban model as one that demonstrates an innovative interpretation of sustainable development. With the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1989, Cuba was forced to pursue an independent national-development strategy, one that made sense for its particular circumstances. Since the declaration of the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio, Cuba has been an outspoken leader and innovative practitioner of sustainable-development strategies. Although an analysis of sustainable development should involve a comprehensive look at all relevant factors, the primary areas of my investigation have been limited to the economy, society, and the environment. BACK TWENTY-YEAR CHANGES IN THE FOREST FLOOR OF THE ADIRONDACK MOUNTAINS, NEW YORK Amanda Moyer Majors: Environmental Studies and Geology (Paleobiology concentration) A 1984 re-evaluation of 48 Adirondack forest-floor plots, first established by Carl C. Heimburger in the 1930's, showed significant reductions in soil pH and extractable calcium in the organic horizons from 1930 to 1984. The results were attributed to increased hydrogen-ion loading and base-cation leaching caused by atmospheric acid deposition, or acid rain. Recent studies suggest that acid deposition also results in elevated aluminum levels in the soil water, leading to further base-cation leaching and soil acidification. The amount of industrial emissions and acid deposition has decreased significantly over the last two decades, yet the degree to which soils have been able to recover is currently unknown. Current hypotheses suggest that historical leaching of exchangeable base cations may have impeded the ability of soils to recover. To learn how northeastern soils have changed during this period of decreased acid deposition, we resampled the organic horizons in 35 of the 1984 Adirondack forest-floor plots and are in the process of determining current soil pH and extractable Ca and Al. The soil pH in both the Oe and Oa horizons increased significantly from 1984 to 2004 (t < .005), suggesting that the forest floor is responding positively to a decrease in acid deposition. Soil pH, however, varies considerably over short distances. Therefore, extractable calcium and aluminum analysis will allow us to draw more reliable conclusions concerning the changes that have occurred in the Adirondack forest floor from 1984 to 2004, as well as enable us to determine if elevated aluminum-to-calcium ratios are associated with increased base-cation leaching and soil acidification. BACK COMPARISON OF NATURAL AND ENGINEERED GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES: AN ASSESSMENT OF THE BEACH-PROTECTION PROJECT IN VENTNOR CITY, NEW JERSEY Jon Pomeroy Majors: Environmental Studies with Biology concentration The Absecon Island Shore Protection project was developed by the Army Corps of Engineers and the New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection for Ventnor City, New Jersey, in an effort to reduce storm damage due to flooding and wave attack while minimizing beach erosion. Because of erosion problems due to natural geomorphic processes, the projected and past rise in sea level, and intense storm damage, it was deemed necessary for the City of Ventnor to undertake a substantial beach-protection project to stabilize the shoreline. The selected solution, a beachfill with dune construction, took place during the spring and early summer of 2004, adding a 100' berm to the beach and 25' wide dunes. The project, in its early stages, was very successful in reducing storm damage due to flooding and wave attack. Its success as a solution to shore erosion is yet to be seen. In the winter following construction, large storms transported one-fifth of the total sand deposited by the project off the beach. However, the newly constructed dunes and berm prevented any damage to beachfront property, and no flooding was reported. The Corps and the NJDEP predict that much of the eroded sand will return naturally to the beach in the summer of 2005. BACK MEDIA FRAMING OF THE WATER SHORTAGE IN THE LOWER COLORADO RIVER Emily Previti Majors: Environmental Studies and English Economic and industrial growth at the border between the United States and Mexico has resulted in a population with needs that surpass the region's natural resources, including water supply. In order to supplement their water shortfall, Mexico and the southwestern U.S. resort to importation from the Colorado River. The border regional authority strives to update its infrastructure to provide sufficient quantities of water, which requires the financial support of, and adjustment in current policy by, both governments, and the agencies with which they are affiliated. As stakeholders in the issue, governments of both nations sponsor media frames, as do developers, environmentalists, and residents in agricultural communities as well as urban areas on both sides of the border. Conflict among these stakeholders sustains the media coverage (Miller, 49) of the water shortage in the Lower Colorado River. The press covers this and other controversies as acute (i.e., newsworthy) events, and uses them as pretexts for coverage of chronic (i.e., slow-moving) environmental problems, like the water shortage in the Lower Colorado. In addition to conflict, journalists rely on stakeholders as sources for information (Miller, 51). In this study, I learned that newspapers quoted government representatives more than any other type of source. Because sources sponsor media frames, one may expect there to be shifts in media frames when there are shifts in administration or policy. Miller, Mark M. and Bonnie Parnell Richert. "Interest group strategies and journalistic norms: news media framing of environmental issues." Environmental Risks and the Media. New York: Routeledge, 2000. (45-54). BACK GROUNDWATER CONTAMINATION IN RINGWOOD, NEW JERSEY Brian Pyun Majors: Environmental Studies with Biology concentration Ringwood is a town located in northern New Jersey, deep within the Ramapo Mountains, between the borders of Bergen and Passaic counties. Ringwood was founded in 1740, and has a history that dates as far back as the 16th century, when it was known for large deposits of iron ore. Ringwood is now known for its historic iron mines, its antique mansions, and its historic significance in the revolutionary war, as well as for its vast array of outdoor recreational opportunities, such as hiking, biking, swimming, fishing, and camping. However, many people are unaware that the federal government in 1983 designated a 500-acre site in Ringwood a Superfund site, due to the presence of toxic waste in a disposal site used by the Ford Motor Company in the 1960's and '70s. This disposal site is traversed by a stream that runs into the nearby Wanaque Reservoir, which supplies millions of New Jersey residents with fresh drinking water. EPA-supervised remediation of the site began in 1987, and the site was declared closed in 1994. Yet, in 1995 and 1997, the Ford Motor co. and EPA were asked back to the site for further cleanup, due to numerous complaints of exposed toxic waste. In 2004, water and soil samples from Ringwood's State Park showed levels of lead (Pb) in soil to be 295 times the state health standard, and arsenic (As) levels 6 times the state level. In addition, a local Native American community that collects drinking water from a river that runs through the Superfund site has complained about several medical disorders which have been attributed to prolonged exposure to the chemicals that were dumped at the site. The Ford Motor Co, the EPA, and the NJ Department of Environmental Protection are now committed to remediate the site more comprehensively, and to address the health concerns of the Native American community. BACK FROM FIELD TO POLICY: MANAGING WATER QUALITY BY 222Rn AND ALTERNATE TRACERS IN SUBMARINE GROUNDWATER DISCHARGE Lindsey Ryckman Majors: Environmental Studies with concentration in Geology For this study I reviewed a body of research on submarine groundwater discharge (SGD) in Florida and the possible applications of the conclusions of that research to water-quality management on federal, state, and local levels. Groundwater-discharge estimates are important for determining the concentrations of nutrients and other contaminants being released into coastal ecosystems and for developing regulatory controls where appropriate. SGD values, combined with the concentration of nutrients in the groundwater, can be used to assess the impact that the nutrient-rich discharge might have on reef and fish communities. In this study I assess the value of estimates of nutrient contributions from sewage and fertilizers to Florida groundwater discharge, and I assess the value of such data to the implementation of policy that might reduce this contamination. Nutrient contamination can be quantified and addressed through the use of natural and artificial tracers. I examined the effectiveness of the most commonly used natural tracer - 222Rn - in five SGD studies in three regions of Florida. I also reviewed the use of alternative tracers including methane and radium. I evaluated the effectiveness of sampling procedures, results, and the value of SGD measurements in case studies of groundwater contamination from sewage and fertilizers. I concluded that SGD estimates are most reliable when more than one tracer is used (to verify results). I determined that coupling of tracers can represent an excellent tool for quantifying the flux of contaminants from sewage and fertilizers. I decided that SGD studies can make valuable contributions to the decision-making process in groundwater management. Based on the SGD case studies examined, I offer recommendations for the regulation of sewage and fertilizers in Florida. BACK PERFORMANCE STUDY OF A NOVEL AEROBIC/ANAEROBIC HYBRID BIOREACTOR FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT Christopher Sales Majors: Environmental Studies and Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering Biological wastewater-treatment processes that employ microorganisms to metabolize organic compounds into innocuous by-products are both environmentally friendly and cost-effective. The activated-sludge process, which is most commonly used in biological-wastewater treatment, combines a biochemical stage (aeration tank) that supports the microbial metabolism of organic compounds with a physical stage (secondary clarifier) that provides biomass-liquids separation to achieve the required treatment efficiency. Although the activated-sludge process is effective at the biochemical stage, it is often plagued by the poor performance of the secondary clarifier because the excessive growth of filamentous bacteria in the biochemical stage causes the formation of bulking biological flocs that have poor settling characteristics and inhibit effective biomass-liquids separation. A performance study was carried out on a novel bioreactor system, developed at the University of Pennsylvania, to determine its feasibility to replace the activated-sludge process as a mainstream biological wastewater-treatment system. This system utilizes an up-flow, tubular reactor that combines the functions of the biochemical and physical stages that are commonly associated with the activated-sludge process. Oxygen required for microbial degradation of the organic compounds is supplied using an external oxygenation tank. Employing ex situ oxygenation avoids agitation and break-up of a stable biomass zone that developed in the tubular reactor. Over the seven-month period of this study, concentrations of microorganisms in the effluent stream were undetectable using the standard volatile suspended-solids (VSS) measurement methods, demonstrating effective biomass-liquid separation. A reactor biomass holdup of about 3 g VSS was attained for the biomass zone with a volume of about 850 ml. By microscopic investigation, the biomass zone consists of a mixture of both floc-forming and filamentous bacteria. Despite the presence of filamentous bacteria, the bioreactor system did not have any bulking problems, even at high C:N ratios (i.e., 50:1 and 100:1) that are known to cause bulking. During the study, it was discovered that, under varying oxygenation rates, the system can accomplish both anaerobic and aerobic degradation simultaneously. Under steady-state conditions, overall COD removal reached up to 92% of the feed COD influx of about 14 mg/hr. Because of the combined anaerobic and aerobic degradation, the growth of the biomass zone was low. Therefore, no biomass sludge was wasted or treated throughout the course of this study. BACK SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND ITS IMPLICATIONS: A BUSINESS PLAN FOR IMPORTING CHOCOLATE FROM SMALL FARMS IN GHANA Nancy Schmicker Majors: Environmental Studies and Philosophy, Politics, and Economics The cocoa-bean industry, which fuels the worldwide chocolate industry, receives most of its beans from West Africa and has done so for over 100 years. Most of this crop is produced on small farms in Cote d'Ivoire and Ghana, and is then exported through government-regulated systems, moving via long-established routes of cocoa traders and distributors. However, existing "slave conditions" on these West African farms have recently been brought to the attention of cocoa traders, chocolate producers, and chocolate consumers. This type of exploitation is widely recognized to be a result of corrupt and poorly executed government policies and trading systems. Many observers have realized that this situation is unhealthy for the current and future lifestyles of West African farmers, and has contributed to weakening the social, political, and economic development of their communities. Around the world, there is growing demand for chocolate that has been fairly produced, which means ensuring adequate wages for farm and factory workers, often manifested in the implementation of local social programs. There is also a documented increased demand for finer chocolate, or chocolate with a higher percentage of cocoa butter and less chemical and sugar additives. One confectionary chocolate factory located in Tema, Ghana, is perfect to fill this niche. This company, Goldentree Chocolates, is a subsidiary of the Cocoa Processing Company, which has long exported a large amount of Ghana's cocoa-bean crop. Goldentree utilizes the large volume of fresh, high-quality cocoa beans that pass through their company to create delicious, natural, and distinct chocolate bars. Goldentree has previously been unable to export successfully due to a lack of solid internal infrastructure and start-up capital. Many Ghanaians even believe that others outside of Ghana would have no interest in enjoying their chocolate. I have developed a plan whereby this localized confectionary factory can export their finished chocolate product directly to consumers through internet marketing. Goldentree chocolate is a fairly produced, high-quality chocolate that until now has only been produced and enjoyed by Ghanaians. Goldentree chocolate bars are easily transportable, and, as many developed countries impose a low tariff for Ghanaian imports, Goldentree is able to provide a very competitive price for their chocolate bars and drinking chocolate. While Ghanaians rarely consume this chocolate, as it is too expensive for most of their budgets, effective marketing of Goldentree products represents an attractive opportunity for creating revenue in the worldwide chocolate market. Directly exporting a product like Goldentree chocolate will enable consumers to stop paying centralized governments and instead pay local farmers who produce the chocolate they enjoy, creating a sustainable business and ensuring a subsistence wage for workers. Separation from the government and movement toward local business and development will free future businesses from the grip of corruption that has characterized past governments and has been cultivated by neo-colonialism and poorly executed structural-adjustment programs. This plan, if realized, will help Ghana develop a stable business community and strengthen lines of communication between Ghana and the international trading community. Via this plan a crippled economy can start to realize a solid GDP and a general economic milieu conducive to business development. This plan would also help pump money into a deflating agricultural sector, creating jobs where they are most useful and helping farmers work their way out of poverty. This plan will also pave the way for the success of future businesses. BACK DETERMINANTS OF AND SPECIES EFFECTS ON SOIL CO2 FLUX IN THE BIOCon EXPERIMENT vs. AN OAK SAVANNA Leigh Seeleman Majors: Environmental Studies and Biology I investigated the abiotic and biotic determinants of and species effects on soil CO2 flux in the BIOCon experiment versus an oak savanna, both located at Cedar Creek Natural History Area, Bethel, MN. Previous studies of flux have indicated that plant species can have a positive or negative effect on flux, and both light and aboveground biomass can influence flux (Craine, 1999). BIOCon is designed to determine how declining biodiversity, increased atmospheric CO2, and increased nitrogen deposition influence ecosystem processes. BIOCon consists of 6 FACE (free air carbon enrichment) rings with 64 plots each. Three rings are enriched with CO2 to ~550 ppm, and three are maintained at ambient CO2 levels. Half of the plots are enriched with nitrogen, and those plots contain varying levels of diversity. Criticism of BIOCon has included the observation that the soil was treated with methyl bromide prior to onset of the experiment. I sought to compare the species effects on and determinants of CO2 flux in an ecosystem process characterized by the release of CO2 from the soil into the atmosphere, between BIOCon and an oak savanna. Through this comparison, I was able to determine the degree to which the BIOCon project accurately models a natural system. In the oak savanna, 40 1m by 1m monodominant plots of Andropogon gerardii, Amorpha canesens, Lezpedeza capitata, Schizachyrium scoparium, and Asclepias tuberosa were marked in two different fields. There were 8 total plots for each species, with 4 of each species scattered in each field. I measured soil CO2 flux and the following potential drivers of flux for each plot: fine-root biomass, soil carbon, soil moisture, temperature, and above-ground biomass. These plots were then compared to the 2 ambient-ambient monoculture plots of each species in the BIOCon experiment. In my investigation, I predicted that biotic factors would influence flux more than abiotic factors. A Tukey test showed that the species studied do differ significantly from one another in their average fluxes, and that their root biomasses differ significantly in a similar pattern. Fine-root biomass was the only measured variable that showed a significant positive correlation with flux (p<.0001). All other variables showed no correlation with flux. Further statistical analysis is needed to address the comparison of BIOCon to the oak savanna. This study is relevant to investigation of global-change factors, which can cause species composition change, potentially altering nutrient dynamics of ecosystems and therefore affecting the global Carbon cycle. Both current land-use practices and global climate change can alter species composition, and a better understanding of the variables influencing flux can help us predict the effect of a changing species composition on nutrient cycling, which can then enhance our understanding of the effects of increasing CO2 levels. Also, a better understanding of the competence of predictive models will aid ecologists' attempts to apply models to predictions of natural systems. Metabolic and Enzymatic Activity Responses of Freshwater Periphyton Communities to Copper Stress Rajiv Shah Majors: Environmental Studies and Biology Periphyton communities were sampled from White Clay Creek (Chester Co., PA), about 40 miles southwest of Philadelphia, in order to analyze their responses to heavy metal stress in the form of copper. The functional responses measured included photosynthesis, community respiration and the activity of three enzymes: Peroxidase, a stress response enzyme, Beta-Glucosidase, an enzyme indicative of respiration activity, and Leucine Aminopeptidase, an enzyme used in protein synthesis, and thus indicative of growth. The summer and fall months of 2004 were spent troubleshooting these assays and adapting them for use with freshwater periphyton communities. In March and April of 2005, two experiments were performed on rocks with associated periphyton. Metabolism measures (made in metabolism chambers) and enzyme assays were conducted before and after the introduction of a copper stress (100µg/L in one experiment, 200µg/L in the other). The chamber data yielded changes in dissolved oxygen concentration, providing estimates of photosynthesis output and respiration demand. Those data were analyzed in conjunction with enzyme data in order to determine the effects of copper stress on these communities. BACK The Predicted Effects of Climate Change and International Mitigation Efforts on Developing Countries Klair Spiller Majors: Environmental Studies and Philosophy, Politics and Economics Following the recent ratification of the Kyoto Protocol, the first international document that legally mandates the reduction of greenhouse-gas emissions, debate pertaining to climate change and future mitigation strategies has been widespread. The uncertainty surrounding the predicted impacts of climate change and the reliability of the science of climatology have become popular media subjects. Governments, however, have devoted more attention to the economics of climate change, with specific emphasis on the role of developing countries in the matter. The Earth's average temperature is rising. In the past decade, temperature has increased at a rate significantly faster than historic norms. Researchers attribute the accelerated pace to high concentrations of greenhouse gases, particularly carbon dioxide, in the atmosphere. These gases trap outgoing terrestrial radiation, causing global temperatures to increase. The greenhouse gases come from a number of natural sources, but the Industrial Revolution produced a sharp increase in atmospheric concentrations. Many scientists, politicians, and environmentalists around the world point out the correlation between carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere and temperature increases. They blame human actions like air pollution and deforestation for accelerated change, further arguing that the projected consequences are too severe to ignore. Opponents contend that the science surrounding climate change is not fully understood, rendering prediction of actual effects and appropriate climate policies hard to support. Despite lack of consensus, based on current projections, many nations and international groups emphasize the importance of curbing emissions and have taken steps to stabilize them. The 1997 Kyoto Protocol enacted by the United Nations became the first international treaty to mandate greenhouse-gas-emission reductions. While 144 countries have ratified it, the treaty has a large number of opponents, most notably the United States and Australia. Critics cite two main reasons that warrant non-participation: First, they argue that the mandated reductions would destroy the economy and unfairly burden the United States and countries whose primary industries emit more by necessity than other industries do. Second, they insist that the lack of involvement of developing countries, which include China and India, two of the world's biggest emitters of greenhouse gases, in emission-reduction mandates is unfair and impractical. This point has led to acrimony in North-South relations, and has caused fissures among developed countries. Developing countries feel that the distribution of the burden of reducing emissions is yet another unwanted and undeserved obligation, while some industrialized countries argue that global reductions that involve all nations are necessary. The argument is further complicated by the muddled provisions set out by the Kyoto Protocol regarding developing countries, the Clean Development Mechanism, and funding and investment distributions. Any successful international emission-stabilization strategy must represent a drastic departure from the current system. In order to slow climate change, developing countries must progress in the most environmentally sound ways, and a system must be established that requires these nations to reduce emissions. However, distinctions must be drawn among advanced developing nations and least developed ones. Concrete standards need to be established that define the point at which a country transforms from a developing to a developed nation. All countries must provide accurate emissions data in order to reduce atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gas most efficiently. The Clean Development Mechanism must be standardized to facilitate and encourage international compliance and investment in poor countries. Flexibility mechanisms must be added, and carbon trading must be successful to minimize the costs of mitigation efforts. Further, the United States and like-minded countries must begin to scale back emissions with or without developing-country participation. The developed countries must reduce fossil-fuel dependence, which currently dictates most aspects of their culture. Most important, as the international community adjusts to the implementation of Kyoto and looks to the future of climate change, new options must be explored that will ensure the active participation of the United States as well as all the developing countries. BACK CONTROL OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY BY THE OIL INDUSTRY: THE HISTORY OF THE ALYESKA PIPELINE AND ITS INFLUENCE ON US ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY Spencer Thune Majors: Environmental Studies and History In June 1969, the Alyeska Pipeline Service Company initiated its plan to transport an estimated 9.1 billion barrels of oil nearly 800 miles from the Prudhoe Bay oil fields on the North Slope of Alaska to the ice-free port of Valdez through a 48-inch-diameter steel pipeline. Initial construction methods proposed by Alyeska did not take into account the negative environmental impacts that the pipeline, haul roads, and airstrips would have on the fragile and pristine Alaskan ecosystems, such as the delicate permafrost, the marine environment, and the landscape that accommodates animal migration. Protest from conservation groups, Native Alaskans, and political organizations brought the proposed pipeline into the sphere of national interest, and subsequently spawned the most passionately fought conservation battle in U.S. history. Those who opposed the construction of the Trans-Alaskan Pipeline used Native American land claims, the Mineral Leasing Act of 1920, and the National Environmental Protection Act to block construction of the pipeline. Over four years of debate took place in the political arena, and, only after President Nixon signed a special Congressional Decree during the oil embargo and national energy crisis of 1973, did Alyeska finally receive permission to begin construction of the pipeline at the beginning of 1974. Despite the fact that Alyeska won the battle to construct the pipeline, it was not a complete conservation and environmental failure. Environmental stipulations, as outlined by NEPA and the Native Land Claims Settlement Act, raised the initial cost of the pipeline from an estimated $900 million to a final cost of just under $6 billion. Environmental activism spurred by the proposed pipeline through Alaska made Alyeska spend considerable time and effort to accommodate environmental considerations into their construction plan; the research and design phase utilized a record 1,500 man-years in environmental studies and environmentally sound construction and operating methods. As a direct result of the pipeline controversy, efforts to conserve Alaska's otherwise pristine environment won a considerable victory with the 1980 Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act (ANILCA), which placed 104 million acres of Alaska's public lands under the protection of the Federal government. Of the 104 million acres the Federal government received, 8.3 million acres were set aside to establish the Yukon Flats National Wildlife Refuge. In addition, ANILCA enlarged the Artic National Wildlife Refuge from 8.9 million acres to 19 million acres. Alyeska intended simply to build a pipeline to transport its large oil reserves across Alaska; it did not intend to spark the largest and most ardently fought conservation battle in U.S. history. The pipeline controversy subsequently changed the borders and land ownership laws in Alaska, and, in addition, the way in which energy companies deal with environmental issues. BACK BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, AN 18TH-CENTURY ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENTIST Gregory Voigt Majors: Environmental Studies with History concentration Few figures in the history of the United States are as celebrated as Benjamin Franklin. With dozens of autobiographies written on this remarkable businessman, inventor, statesman, and philosopher, Franklin indeed stands as one of the true heroes of the American past. In spite of all that has been written on Franklin the revolutionary, however, relatively little has been said of Franklin the scientist. This lack of recognition is remarkable, given the monumental contributions Franklin made to the world of the natural sciences. In addition to his well known experiments with lightning and electricity, Franklin was also the first to realize that the Earth's climate could change, the first to track a hurricane, and the first to chart the Gulf Stream. For his widely recognized achievements, Franklin won virtually every major scientific honor his world bestowed, including the Royal Society's highly prestigious Copley Medal. With his endless list of scientific achievements, Benjamin Franklin was, without doubt, one of the greatest environmental scientists of his age. BACK SOLAR ENERGY IN SCHOOLS: A CASE STUDY OF THE KEARNY, NEW JERSEY, PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM George Weiner Majors: Environmental Studies and Political Science Seven public schools in the Kearny district in New Jersey have embarked on a project that will put solar panels on the roofs of their schools. In this paper I analyze the financial, environmental, and political aspects of the Kearny project. My objective is to evaluate an example of how solar-energy projects can be used to help fund schools and increase alternative energy production by using state subsidies. The Kearny case study shows why schools may be the ideal sites at which to implement alternative energy sources. The Kearny, New Jersey, Public School system is getting a $7 million solar-panel installation and roof improvement at no cost to the school system. This is because New Jersey offers subsidies and refunds for solar-panel projects; last year the solar subsidy was set at 60% (of the project cost) by the NJ Board of Public Utilities. In addition to receiving the solar subsidy, New Jersey has also received a construction fund for school enhancements that covers 40% of the construction costs of funded projects. Due to New Jersey's unusual subsidies, suburban public schools have become ideal locations for solar-panel projects. Although the fiscal cost of acquiring and installing the panels is covered by the state, there are some technical problems that affect the efficiency of the solar panels. Kearney shows that, at the present state of development of photovoltaic technology, it is the environment that bears the true cost of deployment of inefficient photovoltaic panels. BACK