Department of Earth and Environmental Science

Undergraduate Research Abstracts

Senior Research Conference 2005

COMMUNITY-BASED CONSERVATION: AN EFFECTIVE STRATEGY OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Lauren Bome

Majors: Environmental Studies and Economics

Community-based conservation is a relatively new method of environmental management that allows for sustainable use of the natural resources with which a community is endowed. If thoughtfully conceived, community-based conservation ventures utilize resources to provide economic benefits for local communities, in the process providing an incentive for those communities to conserve their profitable resources. This approach is particularly effective under circumstances that prevail in developing nations where the land is often communally owned, people are highly dependent on the land for their livelihood and subsistence, and there are few alternative sources of income. The first and most extensive ventures have taken place in Third World Nations where the economic viability of community conservation is the driving force in gaining support for this strategy. However, developed nations such as the United States have begun to take steps toward increasing community involvement in establishing conservation policy. The success of community-based conservation is fundamentally dependent on the participation of the local population in environmental and conservational decision-making processes. Regardless of the socio-economic level of a nation, community-based conservation has proven to be a more effective and efficient method of environmental management than any method used heretofore. By assessing the community-based conservation efforts that are being pursued in both developed and developing countries, we can learn how to create even more successful projects to be implemented in other regions. If we are concerned with the future of our environment and its natural resources, and if we aspire to optimal protection of those resources, we must engage significant involvement of civil society. This goal can be attained through community-based conservation.

Back to Research Archive

PSYCHOLOGICAL BARRIERS TO THE USE OF RECYCLED WATER

Brandon Cavanaugh

Majors: Environmental Studies (Psychology concentration) and Economics

Recycled water, or wastewater that has been cleaned to the condition in which it is safe to drink, represents a potential alternative source of drinking water that has been developed in response to a growing water shortage. To investigate lay attitudes toward the prospect of consuming such water, I collected information from 300 surveys. Overall, the data indicate that, despite the fact that recycled water can be proven safe to drink, many people reject the idea of consuming such water, while others who would be willing to drink it assert that they would nonetheless be uncomfortable about doing so. My research examines the bases of the rejection of and discomfort about the prospect of consuming "recycled water" with the ultimate (future) goal of trying to understand how to produce greater public acceptance of recycled water as a viable, clean, and safe alternative to current forms of drinking water.

Back to Research Archive

ENVIROTECTURE: GREEN BUILDING DESIGN IN CENTER CITY PHILADELPHIA

Naomi Cole

Majors: Environmental Studies and Architecture

The increasing population density within the world’s cities presents an opportunity for architects and developers to reverse the trends of environmentally destructive building practices. Experts in the field of sustainable urbanism indicate that smart growth requires developing in already dense areas and designing buildings that minimize their impact on the environment. Philadelphia, which has some of the oldest housing stock in the country, must take this approach as its leaders face major development decisions in coming years. Europe has set standards for these kinds of projects, and the US building industry is being transformed by the introduction of a new standard for designing and assessing green buildings. Research of three case studies, Museum Place South (Portland, OR), the Denver Dry Goods Building (Denver Colorado), and the Plaza at PPL Center (Allentown, PA), provides useful insights into the feasibility of green building features and sustainable-urbanism strategies, informing designs for a green-building development in Center City Philadelphia. The success of these projects suggests that similar green building and sustainable urbanism efforts could be applied successfully in Center City Philadelphia. A vacant lot on the corner of 3rd Street and Arch Street in Philadelphia provides an excellent study site. I undertook detailed analysis and documentation of that site to develop a design proposal that integrates residential and retail units into a three-building complex that considers site sustainability, energy and water efficiency, material and resource consumption, and the quality of the indoor environment. I produced drawings, diagrams, and a scale model to demonstrate the viability of this approach.

Back to Research Archive

FAIR-TRADE COFFEE AS A SUSTAINABLE ALTERNATIVE: A FOCUS ON THE CONSUMER HABITS OF STUDENTS AT THE UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA

Elizabeth (Polly) Davis

Majors: Environmental Studies and History

Coffee is the most significant export for many developing countries and second only to oil as a source of foreign exchange in all world trade. Throughout history the coffee market has fluctuated dramatically, leading to economic instability of coffee producers and coffee-producing countries. Many larger producers have turned to high-yield varieties, which are grown in full sun, a practice that leads to deforestation and general environmental degradation. This degradation in turn affects traditional social structures and leads to more instability. Fair trade is a system of certification which creates a set of standards ensuring sustainability environmentally, socially, and economically by guaranteeing a minimum contract price in exchange for sustainable practices. The fair-trade market has grown significantly over the past decade, and brings a larger percent of total profit than its percent in volume of the total coffee market. The majority of University of Pennsylvania students are aware of the availability of fair-trade coffee, but 80% are most likely to buy "non-specialty coffees". However, a majority of students would be interested in seeing more fair-trade products on campus. Penn students reflect national values in the importance they place on quality over social or environmental issues. Therefore, there is a significant niche, both nationally and on the Penn campus, for fair-trade products, but this market will be limited by the number of people for whom low price remains the principal consumer priority.

Back to Research Archive

US FOREIGN POLICY IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE MIDDLE EAST: THE ROLE OF NATURAL RESOURCES

Claire Duncan

Majors: Environmental Studies and Political Science

The United States claimed the role of dominant Hegemon in the western hemisphere more than a hundred years ago. For some time, but particularly in the Cold War era of the 20th century, the U.S. government has not hesitated to intervene in the territory of the third world countries it wished to keep "on our side". These actions are most often explained by the ideology of spreading democracy and protecting the world from Communism. While an ideological component was present and important, there were also substantial economic investments in the natural resources of these places - largely agricultural potential in Latin America and oil in the Middle East. In this paper I examine the role that natural resources has assumed in shaping action and policy in relationships between the United States and a few of these countries. I consider interventions in Guatemala and Iran in an effort to compare involvement in Latin America and the Middle East, and I explore natural-resource aspects of the most recent U.S. action in Iraq.

In 1947, the United States declared the Truman Doctrine – a commitment to aid all governments threatened by "leftist insurrections". The Truman Doctrine was more or less a blank check to fight Communism. In the same year, American Foreign Service and National Security underwent a massive reorganization, out of which came the CIA and the National Security Council (NSC). While a number of interventions and covert operations took place in the following decades, I focus in this paper on events in Guatemala and Iran in the 1950's and the operations in Iran and Nicaragua in the 1970's.

Back to Research Archive

PROMOTING DEMOCRACY THROUGH HIGHER EDUCATION

Paige Fitzgerald

Majors: Environmental Studies and Economics

The mission statements of Western institutions of higher education typically employ language such as "developing future leaders" and "preparing students for responsible citizenship". In a study examining "public pronouncements that U.S. colleges and universities make in their catalogues and mission statements", Alexander Astin concluded that the overarching mission of the U.S. academic community is to serve society and promote and strengthen the democratic system. However, the remnants of Plato's educational philosophy, which centers around the superiority of pure theory and pure science, still influences the Western educational system. By all accounts, the modern university experience focuses on the pursuit of disciplines and job placement rather than on education for responsible citizenship.

In an attempt to return institutions of higher education to their democratic missions, a group of Penn scholars, along with education leaders from the international community, founded the International Consortium for Higher Education, Civic Engagement and Democracy (ICHE). The Consortium was founded with the goal of documenting, understanding, and advancing "the contributions of higher education to democracy on the campus, in the local community, and in the wider society" through international research, conferences, and the sharing of "best practices". The hope is that, by taking this cause to the international community, educational leaders will have the opportunity to share and expand upon others' ideas and to model programs after those at peer institutions. Furthermore, the ICHE has potential to make a drastic impact in fledgling democracies where universities have the potential to restructure society around civic missions. For these universities, access to an international community of scholars and education leaders committed to promoting democracy, as well as research documenting successful practices, will be invaluable as those institutions seek to educate their students for democratic participation.

Penn continues to play a crucial role in the ICHE, serving as its organizational center, and is in the perfect position to spearhead the expansion of the Consortium. President Gutmann's recent inauguration, themed "Rising to the Challenges of a Diverse Democracy", has further excited Penn's committed champions of this civic cause. Penn serves as an excellent model of civic engagement of a university, a fact that has achieved national recognition: in 2003, U.S. News and World Report rated Penn number one in the country for Service Learning (May, 2003). There have been several movements within Penn focused on increasing democratic awareness in local communities. One such effort, Penn Leads the Vote, succeeded in increasing voter turnout for the November 2004 Presidential elections by an unprecedented 280%. Furthermore, Penn's Center for Community Partnerships (CCP) serves as a model program for democratic education. The service-learning programs run through CCP bridge the gap between Penn and West Philadelphia by incorporating service into the classroom experience. By bringing Penn's broader community into a student's educational experience, Penn hopes to educate students for democratic citizenship and civic leadership. Penn is ready to lead by example and to catalyze an international movement challenging institutions of higher education to reexamine their missions and strive to educate democratic citizens.

Back to Research Archive

TOBACCO AT PENN: PROBLEMS, PERCEPTIONS, AND A LOOK AT THE FUTURE

Spencer W. Friedman

Majors: Environmental Studies and Communications

Smoking is one of the most harmful personal behaviors in which a person can engage. The harmful effects of tobacco have been ingrained in every American college student's head through school and the media from a very young age. The percentage of college freshmen that do not know that smoking is a harmful activity is extremely low. And, although smoking rates among American youth have declined over the past few decades, an alarming number of college students in the United States are still "lighting up".

In the past decade, the tobacco industry has focused and intensified its marketing and promotional efforts on the college audience. By targeting college students, the tobacco industry is 1) attempting to sell to the youngest legal audience, and 2) getting its addictive product into the hands of individuals who are still extremely susceptible to social pressures. The tobacco industry has tried to expand its presence on college campuses through promotional give-aways, sponsoring events at college bars and clubs, and direct marketing. Currently, about 29% of American college students smoke cigarettes .

The situation on the University of Pennsylvania (Penn) campus is particularly interesting. Penn is known for attracting the best and the brightest students from across the country and the world. Many of the undergraduates at Penn will go on to be captains of industry, doctors, and important leaders in their respective professions. The percentage of Penn students who are unaware of the harmful effects of tobacco is close to 0%. Nevertheless, previous surveys have found that Penn students smoke at a level near the national rate . If Penn students are the "crème-de-la crème", shouldn't they know better? Is Penn a unique case, or are all college campuses the same? What is the University doing to reduce the number of Penn students who smoke?

In this paper I investigate the factors influencing smoking rates on American college campuses, and I evaluate the different methods, programs, and policies that have been utilized by colleges and universities to reduce smoking among students. Finally, I analyze the tobacco situation at the University of Pennsylvania, draw comparisons to other American universities, evaluate Penn's tobacco policies and smoking-cessation campaigns, and present a list of recommendations to improve the University's anti-tobacco efforts and to reduce the percentage of smokers on Penn's campus in future years.

Back to Research Archive

DEVELOPMENT OF EFFECTIVE SOCIAL BEHAVIORS IN THE BROWN-HEADED COWBIRD (Molothrus ater): HATCH-DATE FACTOR

Irene Godoy

Majors: Environmental Studies (Biology Concentration) and Psychology

The Brown-headed cowbird is a highly social songbird species in which juveniles require social learning to develop the patterns of behavior typical of their species. Past research has shown the importance of exposure to experienced adult populations in determining the subsequent reproductive success of juveniles, but little is known about other factors that might impact the behavioral development of these juveniles prior to this social-learning process. We hypothesized that there are factors prior to exposure to experienced adults that impact the ability of juvenile cowbirds to develop effective social behaviors. Specifically, in our study we sought to find out whether hatch-date alone would affect the way in which our birds behaved. To do so, we tracked the development of communication and social behaviors in captive hand-raised cowbirds during the first year of their lives. We kept records of their physical development, social interactions, and song production. Our results showed a large difference in the developmental trajectories of our birds based on hatch-date alone. Cowbirds hatched earlier in the breeding season were larger and had lower mortality rates than those hatched later in the breeding season. The amount of undirected song sung by our birds did not differ significantly based on when they where hatched. However, early-hatch males sang a significantly larger proportion of their song toward other males - a pattern of song use important in predicting which males will be more successful during the breeding season - than did late-hatch males. Furthermore, there was a direct correlation between the ages of our birds and the proportion of song that they sung toward other males. Our data indicate that there are factors - prior even to hatching - that affect the physical and, very important, behavioral development of cowbirds. We use these data to argue that it is necessary to study the developmental processes that shape how a behavior is expressed in order to understand what that particular behavior signals.

Back to Research Archive

FLOW REGIME AND RIPARIAN VEGETATION IN THE LUQUILLO MOUNTAINS, PUERTO RICO

Emmanuelle Humblet

Majors: Environmental Studies with Biology concentration

As the interface between aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems, riparian zones are sites of diverse, dynamic, and complex biophysical processes. The composition of riparian vegetation depends on many factors, including light conditions, substrate and edaphic conditions, and the frequency of flooding. Understanding these relationships is important to management and conservation of streams. Furthermore, quantifying the relationship between the height of minimum occurrence of different vegetation types and stream flow provides ecologists with the ability to predict flow regimes at ungauged stations, exclusively through the spatial distribution of vegetation in the riparian zone. The objective of this study is to describe the relationship between stream flow and vegetation, with the hypotheses that different flow regimes promote different vegetation types, and that there exists a consistent relationship between flooding disturbance and streamside vegetation structure. The study was conducted at 5 different USGS stream gauges, and the heights of minimum occurrences of moss, herbaceous, shrubby, and tree vegetation were recorded along tape-transects extended across the stream. Through the use of a customized Visual Basic module within Microsoft Excel and USGS historical 15-minute flood data, I determined the total number of floods, the probability of exceedance, and the average and total duration of flooding for each vegetation type. Distinct vegetation levels were found where the heights of each followed the trend of trees, shrubs, herbaceous vegetation, and moss. This study demonstrates the relationship between the flooding regime and the different vegetation types across transects, with distinct flow patterns correlating with specific vegetation types.

Back to Research Archive

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE IN AMERICA: LESSONS FROM THE GERMAN SYSTEM

Amy Kidd

Majors: Environmental Studies and German

"Reduce, reuse, recycle" is the solid-waste hierarchy developed by the USEPA. Following the hierarchy, the most important aspect of solid-waste management is limiting unnecessary materials. If possible, necessary materials should be used more than once, and recyclables in the waste stream should be recycled, thus limiting what is disposed of via landfill and what is incinerated. Reducing, reusing, and recycling in the United States still has room for improvement, compared to other developed countries. Germans, for example, produce less than two thirds of the waste of Americans, per capita. The most significant reason for this large difference is that German legislation and policy not only encourage, but also mandate, waste reduction. The most prominent piece of waste-reduction legislation is the Verpackungsverordnung (packaging ordinance), which forces producers to take responsibility for the packaging materials they use, so that those materials are reused and recycled. Success of these policies is due largely to the effort of individuals, through their political support, and through their compliance. German compliance with waste- management policies has physical and cultural bases, such as population density and environmental education, respectively. The United States can improve its waste management, and increase the amount of waste reduced, reused, and recycled, by increasing incentives for waste reduction in industry, instituting a deposit system for containers, and educating the public more effectively on environmental issues.

Back to Research Archive

DRIVING DAYTONA BEACH

John Kuendig

Majors: Environmental Studies with Urban Studies concentration

The city of Daytona Beach, Florida , has been economically dependent on tourism for over 100 years. This industry relies solely on the presence and quality of the attractions in the area. In Daytona Beach, the beach and auto racing serve as the main attractions. In addition, the two are directly correlated. The city's rich auto-racing tradition can be traced back to the same beaches that still host millions of visitors every year. Although the racing aspect has been moved to the Daytona International Speedway, tourists and residents alike have enjoyed the right to drive and park on the beach for over a century. It is a unique experience that has earned Daytona Beach a reputation and an identification as the "World's Most Famous Beach". However, this experience has been brought into question. Not only have there been numerous efforts undertaken over the last five years to completely eliminate driving on the beach, but impacts from recent hurricanes have also left most of the 23-mile stretch un-drivable, leaving its future uncertain.

Beach driving is an issue that has split the city in two. One side wants to end this tradition immediately. They argue that the negative environmental effects of driving on the beach will ultimately destroy this sensitive habitat. They believe that the constant wear and tear of beach driving cannot yield any positive results. Further, this same group believes that now is the perfect opportunity to change the identity of Daytona Beach. By moving the main activities off the beach, they envision attracting to the city a cleaner, safer, more family-oriented group of tourists.

On the other hand, many residents and city officials believe that the tradition of beach driving should remain untouched. This group would like to restore the beach to its old form and resume driving as it was pursued before. Supporting this popint of view is the economics of the situation. Tourists account for a $1.5 billion influx each year. Even though the Daytona International Speedway has taken racing off of the beach, 90% of the hotels in which these fans stay are located on the beach. In Addition, Daytona's airport is too small to handle these huge crowds, so the majority of them drive their own vehicles, expecting to take them onto the beach as well. The ability to drive on the beach is a major element of the social interactions of the city.

Nevertheless, my research has led me to believe that the solution lies somewhere in between these two extreme positions. Because the city depends so strongly on the dollars brought in by tourists, eliminating beach driving completely is not an economic or social option. Conversely, by taking no immediate action the city would be putting the environmental stability of the beaches in danger, and risk losing the attraction altogether. This is why it is important to meet somewhere in the middle. With proper management, the beaches can remain drivable, while still preserving the sensitive habitat as well as the identity of the city. Sensible mitigation techniques are available that could be applied in order to ensure the economic, social, and environmental future of Daytona Beach.

Back to Research Archive

CUBA: A CASE OF SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Soren Meischeid

Majors: Environmental Studies and International Relations

Sustainable development as a concept has become a widely recognized/accepted goal for human society ever since deteriorating environmental conditions in many parts of the world have indicated that our planetary sustainability may be at stake. Despite extensive international endorsement, many are concerned that little has been achieved on an intergovernmental basis to implement an effective strategy of sustainable development. What explains the disparity between international support of sustainable-development policies and the lack/absence of a universal model? In an ecologically interdependent world where environmental damage in one area can have global consequences, should we not coordinate a universal model for sustainable development? In this thesis, I argue that a universal model for sustainable development would not only be impractical, it would be misguided. In accordance with the United Nations Division for Sustainable Development, I assert that each country should be responsible for adopting national strategies for sustainable development, which build upon and harmonize with the various sectoral, economic, social, and environmental policies and plans that operate in that country. Sustainable development requires systems information; the crucial part is identifying the essential relationships in each system, which is largely unique to each country. Thus, contrary to traditional claims of conceptual ambiguity, the concept of sustainable development is rightly open-ended to a certain degree in order to allow for variability between cases and innovative interpretation.

In the second part of this thesis I evaluate the controversial and unique but overlooked case of the Cuban model as one that demonstrates an innovative interpretation of sustainable development. With the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1989, Cuba was forced to pursue an independent national-development strategy, one that made sense for its particular circumstances. Since the declaration of the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio, Cuba has been an outspoken leader and innovative practitioner of sustainable-development strategies. Although an analysis of sustainable development should involve a comprehensive look at all relevant factors, the primary areas of my investigation have been limited to the economy, society, and the environment.

Back to Research Archive

TWENTY-YEAR CHANGES IN THE FOREST FLOOR OF THE ADIRONDACK MOUNTAINS, NEW YORK

Amanda Moyer

Majors: Environmental Studies and Geology (Paleobiology concentration)

A 1984 re-evaluation of 48 Adirondack forest-floor plots, first established by Carl C. Heimburger in the 1930's, showed significant reductions in soil pH and extractable calcium in the organic horizons from 1930 to 1984. The results were attributed to increased hydrogen-ion loading and base-cation leaching caused by atmospheric acid deposition, or acid rain. Recent studies suggest that acid deposition also results in elevated aluminum levels in the soil water, leading to further base-cation leaching and soil acidification. The amount of industrial emissions and acid deposition has decreased significantly over the last two decades, yet the degree to which soils have been able to recover is currently unknown. Current hypotheses suggest that historical leaching of exchangeable base cations may have impeded the ability of soils to recover. To learn how northeastern soils have changed during this period of decreased acid deposition, we resampled the organic horizons in 35 of the 1984 Adirondack forest-floor plots and are in the process of determining current soil pH and extractable Ca and Al. The soil pH in both the Oe and Oa horizons increased significantly from 1984 to 2004 (t < .005), suggesting that the forest floor is responding positively to a decrease in acid deposition. Soil pH, however, varies considerably over short distances. Therefore, extractable calcium and aluminum analysis will allow us to draw more reliable conclusions concerning the changes that have occurred in the Adirondack forest floor from 1984 to 2004, as well as enable us to determine if elevated aluminum-to-calcium ratios are associated with increased base-cation leaching and soil acidification.

Back to Research Archive

COMPARISON OF NATURAL AND ENGINEERED GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES: AN ASSESSMENT OF THE BEACH-PROTECTION PROJECT IN VENTNOR CITY, NEW JERSEY

Jon Pomeroy

Majors: Environmental Studies with Biology concentration

The Absecon Island Shore Protection project was developed by the Army Corps of Engineers and the New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection for Ventnor City, New Jersey, in an effort to reduce storm damage due to flooding and wave attack while minimizing beach erosion. Because of erosion problems due to natural geomorphic processes, the projected and past rise in sea level, and intense storm damage, it was deemed necessary for the City of Ventnor to undertake a substantial beach-protection project to stabilize the shoreline. The selected solution, a beachfill with dune construction, took place during the spring and early summer of 2004, adding a 100' berm to the beach and 25' wide dunes. The project, in its early stages, was very successful in reducing storm damage due to flooding and wave attack. Its success as a solution to shore erosion is yet to be seen. In the winter following construction, large storms transported one-fifth of the total sand deposited by the project off the beach. However, the newly constructed dunes and berm prevented any damage to beachfront property, and no flooding was reported. The Corps and the NJDEP predict that much of the eroded sand will return naturally to the beach in the summer of 2005.

Back to Research Archive

MEDIA FRAMING OF THE WATER SHORTAGE IN THE LOWER COLORADO RIVER

Emily Previti

Majors: Environmental Studies and English

Economic and industrial growth at the border between the United States and Mexico has resulted in a population with needs that surpass the region's natural resources, including water supply. In order to supplement their water shortfall, Mexico and the southwestern U.S. resort to importation from the Colorado River. The border regional authority strives to update its infrastructure to provide sufficient quantities of water, which requires the financial support of, and adjustment in current policy by, both governments, and the agencies with which they are affiliated.

As stakeholders in the issue, governments of both nations sponsor media frames, as do developers, environmentalists, and residents in agricultural communities as well as urban areas on both sides of the border. Conflict among these stakeholders sustains the media coverage (Miller, 49) of the water shortage in the Lower Colorado River. The press covers this and other controversies as acute (i.e., newsworthy) events, and uses them as pretexts for coverage of chronic (i.e., slow-moving) environmental problems, like the water shortage in the Lower Colorado. In addition to conflict, journalists rely on stakeholders as sources for information (Miller, 51). In this study, I learned that newspapers quoted government representatives more than any other type of source. Because sources sponsor media frames, one may expect there to be shifts in media frames when there are shifts in administration or policy.

Miller, Mark M. and Bonnie Parnell Richert. "Interest group strategies and journalistic norms: news media framing of environmental issues." Environmental Risks and the Media. New York: Routeledge, 2000. (45-54).

Back to Research Archive

GROUNDWATER CONTAMINATION IN RINGWOOD, NEW JERSEY

Brian Pyun

Majors: Environmental Studies with Biology concentration

Ringwood is a town located in northern New Jersey, deep within the Ramapo Mountains, between the borders of Bergen and Passaic counties. Ringwood was founded in 1740, and has a history that dates as far back as the 16th century, when it was known for large deposits of iron ore. Ringwood is now known for its historic iron mines, its antique mansions, and its historic significance in the revolutionary war, as well as for its vast array of outdoor recreational opportunities, such as hiking, biking, swimming, fishing, and camping. However, many people are unaware that the federal government in 1983 designated a 500-acre site in Ringwood a Superfund site, due to the presence of toxic waste in a disposal site used by the Ford Motor Company in the 1960's and '70s. This disposal site is traversed by a stream that runs into the nearby Wanaque Reservoir, which supplies millions of New Jersey residents with fresh drinking water. EPA-supervised remediation of the site began in 1987, and the site was declared closed in 1994. Yet, in 1995 and 1997, the Ford Motor co. and EPA were asked back to the site for further cleanup, due to numerous complaints of exposed toxic waste. In 2004, water and soil samples from Ringwood's State Park showed levels of lead (Pb) in soil to be 295 times the state health standard, and arsenic (As) levels 6 times the state level. In addition, a local Native American community that collects drinking water from a river that runs through the Superfund site has complained about several medical disorders which have been attributed to prolonged exposure to the chemicals that were dumped at the site. The Ford Motor Co, the EPA, and the NJ Department of Environmental Protection are now committed to remediate the site more comprehensively, and to address the health concerns of the Native American community.

Back to Research Archive

FROM FIELD TO POLICY: MANAGING WATER QUALITY BY 222Rn AND ALTERNATE TRACERS IN SUBMARINE GROUNDWATER DISCHARGE

Lindsey Ryckman

Majors: Environmental Studies with concentration in Geology

For this study I reviewed a body of research on submarine groundwater discharge (SGD) in Florida and the possible applications of the conclusions of that research to water-quality management on federal, state, and local levels. Groundwater-discharge estimates are important for determining the concentrations of nutrients and other contaminants being released into coastal ecosystems and for developing regulatory controls where appropriate. SGD values, combined with the concentration of nutrients in the groundwater, can be used to assess the impact that the nutrient-rich discharge might have on reef and fish communities. In this study I assess the value of estimates of nutrient contributions from sewage and fertilizers to Florida groundwater discharge, and I assess the value of such data to the implementation of policy that might reduce this contamination.

Nutrient contamination can be quantified and addressed through the use of natural and artificial tracers. I examined the effectiveness of the most commonly used natural tracer - 222Rn - in five SGD studies in three regions of Florida. I also reviewed the use of alternative tracers including methane and radium. I evaluated the effectiveness of sampling procedures, results, and the value of SGD measurements in case studies of groundwater contamination from sewage and fertilizers. I concluded that SGD estimates are most reliable when more than one tracer is used (to verify results). I determined that coupling of tracers can represent an excellent tool for quantifying the flux of contaminants from sewage and fertilizers. I decided that SGD studies can make valuable contributions to the decision-making process in groundwater management. Based on the SGD case studies examined, I offer recommendations for the regulation of sewage and fertilizers in Florida.

Back to Research Archive

PERFORMANCE STUDY OF A NOVEL AEROBIC/ANAEROBIC HYBRID BIOREACTOR FOR WASTEWATER TREATMENT

Christopher Sales

Majors: Environmental Studies and Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering

Biological wastewater-treatment processes that employ microorganisms to metabolize organic compounds into innocuous by-products are both environmentally friendly and cost-effective. The activated-sludge process, which is most commonly used in biological-wastewater treatment, combines a biochemical stage (aeration tank) that supports the microbial metabolism of organic compounds with a physical stage (secondary clarifier) that provides biomass-liquids separation to achieve the required treatment efficiency. Although the activated-sludge process is effective at the biochemical stage, it is often plagued by the poor performance of the secondary clarifier because the excessive growth of filamentous bacteria in the biochemical stage causes the formation of bulking biological flocs that have poor settling characteristics and inhibit effective biomass-liquids separation.

A performance study was carried out on a novel bioreactor system, developed at the University of Pennsylvania, to determine its feasibility to replace the activated-sludge process as a mainstream biological wastewater-treatment system. This system utilizes an up-flow, tubular reactor that combines the functions of the biochemical and physical stages that are commonly associated with the activated-sludge process. Oxygen required for microbial degradation of the organic compounds is supplied using an external oxygenation tank. Employing ex situ oxygenation avoids agitation and break-up of a stable biomass zone that developed in the tubular reactor.

Over the seven-month period of this study, concentrations of microorganisms in the effluent stream were undetectable using the standard volatile suspended-solids (VSS) measurement methods, demonstrating effective biomass-liquid separation. A reactor biomass holdup of about 3 g VSS was attained for the biomass zone with a volume of about 850 ml. By microscopic investigation, the biomass zone consists of a mixture of both floc-forming and filamentous bacteria. Despite the presence of filamentous bacteria, the bioreactor system did not have any bulking problems, even at high C:N ratios (i.e., 50:1 and 100:1) that are known to cause bulking. During the study, it was discovered that, under varying oxygenation rates, the system can accomplish both anaerobic and aerobic degradation simultaneously. Under steady-state conditions, overall COD removal reached up to 92% of the feed COD influx of about 14 mg/hr. Because of the combined anaerobic and aerobic degradation, the growth of the biomass zone was low. Therefore, no biomass sludge was wasted or treated throughout the course of this study.

Back to Research Archive

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT AND ITS IMPLICATIONS: A BUSINESS PLAN FOR IMPORTING CHOCOLATE FROM SMALL FARMS IN GHANA

Nancy Schmicker

Majors: Environmental Studies and Philosophy, Politics, and Economics

The cocoa-bean industry, which fuels the worldwide chocolate industry, receives most of its beans from West Africa and has done so for over 100 years. Most of this crop is produced on small farms in Cote d'Ivoire and Ghana, and is then exported through government-regulated systems, moving via long-established routes of cocoa traders and distributors. However, existing "slave conditions" on these West African farms have recently been brought to the attention of cocoa traders, chocolate producers, and chocolate consumers. This type of exploitation is widely recognized to be a result of corrupt and poorly executed government policies and trading systems. Many observers have realized that this situation is unhealthy for the current and future lifestyles of West African farmers, and has contributed to weakening the social, political, and economic development of their communities.

Around the world, there is growing demand for chocolate that has been fairly produced, which means ensuring adequate wages for farm and factory workers, often manifested in the implementation of local social programs. There is also a documented increased demand for finer chocolate, or chocolate with a higher percentage of cocoa butter and less chemical and sugar additives. One confectionary chocolate factory located in Tema, Ghana, is perfect to fill this niche. This company, Goldentree Chocolates, is a subsidiary of the Cocoa Processing Company, which has long exported a large amount of Ghana's cocoa-bean crop. Goldentree utilizes the large volume of fresh, high-quality cocoa beans that pass through their company to create delicious, natural, and distinct chocolate bars. Goldentree has previously been unable to export successfully due to a lack of solid internal infrastructure and start-up capital. Many Ghanaians even believe that others outside of Ghana would have no interest in enjoying their chocolate.

I have developed a plan whereby this localized confectionary factory can export their finished chocolate product directly to consumers through internet marketing. Goldentree chocolate is a fairly produced, high-quality chocolate that until now has only been produced and enjoyed by Ghanaians. Goldentree chocolate bars are easily transportable, and, as many developed countries impose a low tariff for Ghanaian imports, Goldentree is able to provide a very competitive price for their chocolate bars and drinking chocolate. While Ghanaians rarely consume this chocolate, as it is too expensive for most of their budgets, effective marketing of Goldentree products represents an attractive opportunity for creating revenue in the worldwide chocolate market. Directly exporting a product like Goldentree chocolate will enable consumers to stop paying centralized governments and instead pay local farmers who produce the chocolate they enjoy, creating a sustainable business and ensuring a subsistence wage for workers.

Separation from the government and movement toward local business and development will free future businesses from the grip of corruption that has characterized past governments and has been cultivated by neo-colonialism and poorly executed structural-adjustment programs. This plan, if realized, will help Ghana develop a stable business community and strengthen lines of communication between Ghana and the international trading community. Via this plan a crippled economy can start to realize a solid GDP and a general economic milieu conducive to business development. This plan would also help pump money into a deflating agricultural sector, creating jobs where they are most useful and helping farmers work their way out of poverty. This plan will also pave the way for the success of future businesses.

Back to Research Archive

DETERMINANTS OF AND SPECIES EFFECTS ON SOIL CO2 FLUX IN THE BIOCon EXPERIMENT vs. AN OAK SAVANNA

Leigh Seeleman

Majors: Environmental Studies and Biology

I investigated the abiotic and biotic determinants of and species effects on soil CO2 flux in the BIOCon experiment versus an oak savanna, both located at Cedar Creek Natural History Area, Bethel, MN. Previous studies of flux have indicated that plant species can have a positive or negative effect on flux, and both light and aboveground biomass can influence flux (Craine, 1999). BIOCon is designed to determine how declining biodiversity, increased atmospheric CO2, and increased nitrogen deposition influence ecosystem processes. BIOCon consists of 6 FACE (free air carbon enrichment) rings with 64 plots each. Three rings are enriched with CO2 to ~550 ppm, and three are maintained at ambient CO2 levels. Half of the plots are enriched with nitrogen, and those plots contain varying levels of diversity. Criticism of BIOCon has included the observation that the soil was treated with methyl bromide prior to onset of the experiment. I sought to compare the species effects on and determinants of CO2 flux in an ecosystem process characterized by the release of CO2 from the soil into the atmosphere, between BIOCon and an oak savanna. Through this comparison, I was able to determine the degree to which the BIOCon project accurately models a natural system.

In the oak savanna, 40 1m by 1m monodominant plots of Andropogon gerardii, Amorpha canesens, Lezpedeza capitata, Schizachyrium scoparium, and Asclepias tuberosa were marked in two different fields. There were 8 total plots for each species, with 4 of each species scattered in each field. I measured soil CO2 flux and the following potential drivers of flux for each plot: fine-root biomass, soil carbon, soil moisture, temperature, and above-ground biomass. These plots were then compared to the 2 ambient-ambient monoculture plots of each species in the BIOCon experiment. In my investigation, I predicted that biotic factors would influence flux more than abiotic factors.

A Tukey test showed that the species studied do differ significantly from one another in their average fluxes, and that their root biomasses differ significantly in a similar pattern. Fine-root biomass was the only measured variable that showed a significant positive correlation with flux (p<.0001). All other variables showed no correlation with flux. Further statistical analysis is needed to address the comparison of BIOCon to the oak savanna.

This study is relevant to investigation of global-change factors, which can cause species composition change, potentially altering nutrient dynamics of ecosystems and therefore affecting the global Carbon cycle. Both current land-use practices and global climate change can alter species composition, and a better understanding of the variables influencing flux can help us predict the effect of a changing species composition on nutrient cycling, which can then enhance our understanding of the effects of increasing CO2 levels. Also, a better understanding of the competence of predictive models will aid ecologists' attempts to apply models to predictions of natural systems.

Back to Research Archive

Metabolic and Enzymatic Activity Responses of Freshwater Periphyton Communities to Copper Stress

Rajiv Shah

Majors: Environmental Studies and Biology

Periphyton communities were sampled from White Clay Creek (Chester Co., PA), about 40 miles southwest of Philadelphia, in order to analyze their responses to heavy metal stress in the form of copper. The functional responses measured included photosynthesis, community respiration and the activity of three enzymes: Peroxidase, a stress response enzyme, Beta-Glucosidase, an enzyme indicative of respiration activity, and Leucine Aminopeptidase, an enzyme used in protein synthesis, and thus indicative of growth. The summer and fall months of 2004 were spent troubleshooting these assays and adapting them for use with freshwater periphyton communities. In March and April of 2005, two experiments were performed on rocks with associated periphyton. Metabolism measures (made in metabolism chambers) and enzyme assays were conducted before and after the introduction of a copper stress (100µg/L in one experiment, 200µg/L in the other). The chamber data yielded changes in dissolved oxygen concentration, providing estimates of photosynthesis output and respiration demand. Those data were analyzed in conjunction with enzyme data in order to determine the effects of copper stress on these communities.

Back to Research Archive

The Predicted Effects of Climate Change and International Mitigation Efforts on Developing Countries

Klair Spiller

Majors: Environmental Studies and Philosophy, Politics and Economics

Following the recent ratification of the Kyoto Protocol, the first international document that legally mandates the reduction of greenhouse-gas emissions, debate pertaining to climate change and future mitigation strategies has been widespread. The uncertainty surrounding the predicted impacts of climate change and the reliability of the science of climatology have become popular media subjects. Governments, however, have devoted more attention to the economics of climate change, with specific emphasis on the role of developing countries in the matter.

The Earth's average temperature is rising. In the past decade, temperature has increased at a rate significantly faster than historic norms. Researchers attribute the accelerated pace to high concentrations of greenhouse gases, particularly carbon dioxide, in the atmosphere. These gases trap outgoing terrestrial radiation, causing global temperatures to increase. The greenhouse gases come from a number of natural sources, but the Industrial Revolution produced a sharp increase in atmospheric concentrations. Many scientists, politicians, and environmentalists around the world point out the correlation between carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere and temperature increases. They blame human actions like air pollution and deforestation for accelerated change, further arguing that the projected consequences are too severe to ignore. Opponents contend that the science surrounding climate change is not fully understood, rendering prediction of actual effects and appropriate climate policies hard to support. Despite lack of consensus, based on current projections, many nations and international groups emphasize the importance of curbing emissions and have taken steps to stabilize them.

The 1997 Kyoto Protocol enacted by the United Nations became the first international treaty to mandate greenhouse-gas-emission reductions. While 144 countries have ratified it, the treaty has a large number of opponents, most notably the United States and Australia. Critics cite two main reasons that warrant non-participation: First, they argue that the mandated reductions would destroy the economy and unfairly burden the United States and countries whose primary industries emit more by necessity than other industries do. Second, they insist that the lack of involvement of developing countries, which include China and India, two of the world's biggest emitters of greenhouse gases, in emission-reduction mandates is unfair and impractical. This point has led to acrimony in North-South relations, and has caused fissures among developed countries. Developing countries feel that the distribution of the burden of reducing emissions is yet another unwanted and undeserved obligation, while some industrialized countries argue that global reductions that involve all nations are necessary. The argument is further complicated by the muddled provisions set out by the Kyoto Protocol regarding developing countries, the Clean Development Mechanism, and funding and investment distributions.

Any successful international emission-stabilization strategy must represent a drastic departure from the current system. In order to slow climate change, developing countries must progress in the most environmentally sound ways, and a system must be established that requires these nations to reduce emissions. However, distinctions must be drawn among advanced developing nations and least developed ones. Concrete standards need to be established that define the point at which a country transforms from a developing to a developed nation. All countries must provide accurate emissions data in order to reduce atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gas most efficiently. The Clean Development Mechanism must be standardized to facilitate and encourage international compliance and investment in poor countries. Flexibility mechanisms must be added, and carbon trading must be successful to minimize the costs of mitigation efforts. Further, the United States and like-minded countries must begin to scale back emissions with or without developing-country participation. The developed countries must reduce fossil-fuel dependence, which currently dictates most aspects of their culture. Most important, as the international community adjusts to the implementation of Kyoto and looks to the future of climate change, new options must be explored that will ensure the active participation of the United States as well as all the developing countries.

Back to Research Archive

CONTROL OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY BY THE OIL INDUSTRY: THE HISTORY OF THE ALYESKA PIPELINE AND ITS INFLUENCE ON US ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY

Spencer Thune

Majors: Environmental Studies and History

In June 1969, the Alyeska Pipeline Service Company initiated its plan to transport an estimated 9.1 billion barrels of oil nearly 800 miles from the Prudhoe Bay oil fields on the North Slope of Alaska to the ice-free port of Valdez through a 48-inch-diameter steel pipeline. Initial construction methods proposed by Alyeska did not take into account the negative environmental impacts that the pipeline, haul roads, and airstrips would have on the fragile and pristine Alaskan ecosystems, such as the delicate permafrost, the marine environment, and the landscape that accommodates animal migration. Protest from conservation groups, Native Alaskans, and political organizations brought the proposed pipeline into the sphere of national interest, and subsequently spawned the most passionately fought conservation battle in U.S. history. Those who opposed the construction of the Trans-Alaskan Pipeline used Native American land claims, the Mineral Leasing Act of 1920, and the National Environmental Protection Act to block construction of the pipeline. Over four years of debate took place in the political arena, and, only after President Nixon signed a special Congressional Decree during the oil embargo and national energy crisis of 1973, did Alyeska finally receive permission to begin construction of the pipeline at the beginning of 1974. Despite the fact that Alyeska won the battle to construct the pipeline, it was not a complete conservation and environmental failure. Environmental stipulations, as outlined by NEPA and the Native Land Claims Settlement Act, raised the initial cost of the pipeline from an estimated $900 million to a final cost of just under $6 billion. Environmental activism spurred by the proposed pipeline through Alaska made Alyeska spend considerable time and effort to accommodate environmental considerations into their construction plan; the research and design phase utilized a record 1,500 man-years in environmental studies and environmentally sound construction and operating methods. As a direct result of the pipeline controversy, efforts to conserve Alaska's otherwise pristine environment won a considerable victory with the 1980 Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation Act (ANILCA), which placed 104 million acres of Alaska's public lands under the protection of the Federal government. Of the 104 million acres the Federal government received, 8.3 million acres were set aside to establish the Yukon Flats National Wildlife Refuge. In addition, ANILCA enlarged the Artic National Wildlife Refuge from 8.9 million acres to 19 million acres. Alyeska intended simply to build a pipeline to transport its large oil reserves across Alaska; it did not intend to spark the largest and most ardently fought conservation battle in U.S. history. The pipeline controversy subsequently changed the borders and land ownership laws in Alaska, and, in addition, the way in which energy companies deal with environmental issues.

Back to Research Archive

BENJAMIN FRANKLIN, AN 18TH-CENTURY ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENTIST

Gregory Voigt

Majors: Environmental Studies with History concentration

Few figures in the history of the United States are as celebrated as Benjamin Franklin. With dozens of autobiographies written on this remarkable businessman, inventor, statesman, and philosopher, Franklin indeed stands as one of the true heroes of the American past. In spite of all that has been written on Franklin the revolutionary, however, relatively little has been said of Franklin the scientist. This lack of recognition is remarkable, given the monumental contributions Franklin made to the world of the natural sciences. In addition to his well known experiments with lightning and electricity, Franklin was also the first to realize that the Earth's climate could change, the first to track a hurricane, and the first to chart the Gulf Stream. For his widely recognized achievements, Franklin won virtually every major scientific honor his world bestowed, including the Royal Society's highly prestigious Copley Medal. With his endless list of scientific achievements, Benjamin Franklin was, without doubt, one of the greatest environmental scientists of his age.

Back to Research Archive

SOLAR ENERGY IN SCHOOLS: A CASE STUDY OF THE KEARNY, NEW JERSEY, PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM

George Weiner

Majors: Environmental Studies and Political Science

Seven public schools in the Kearny district in New Jersey have embarked on a project that will put solar panels on the roofs of their schools. In this paper I analyze the financial, environmental, and political aspects of the Kearny project. My objective is to evaluate an example of how solar-energy projects can be used to help fund schools and increase alternative energy production by using state subsidies. The Kearny case study shows why schools may be the ideal sites at which to implement alternative energy sources.

The Kearny, New Jersey, Public School system is getting a $7 million solar-panel installation and roof improvement at no cost to the school system. This is because New Jersey offers subsidies and refunds for solar-panel projects; last year the solar subsidy was set at 60% (of the project cost) by the NJ Board of Public Utilities. In addition to receiving the solar subsidy, New Jersey has also received a construction fund for school enhancements that covers 40% of the construction costs of funded projects. Due to New Jersey's unusual subsidies, suburban public schools have become ideal locations for solar-panel projects. Although the fiscal cost of acquiring and installing the panels is covered by the state, there are some technical problems that affect the efficiency of the solar panels. Kearney shows that, at the present state of development of photovoltaic technology, it is the environment that bears the true cost of deployment of inefficient photovoltaic panels.

Back to Research Archive