Department of Earth and Environmental Science

Undergraduate Research Abstracts

2007

BIOLOGIC COLONIALISM AS A TEMPLATE FOR ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN

Nick Beck

Advisor:  Helene Furjan

            Many architectural theorists and practicing architects promote the concept of the architectural structure as an organism, whose design has been governed by genetic and epigenetic controls that have enabled each successful structure to adapt to the needs and environmental demands of its site and program. While didactic and innovative, these design methods are incomplete and easily indifferent to the mandate of functionality. Lessons from colonial organisms, particularly siphonophores, may inform this modality of design.

            In a superficial sense, colonialism lies on the border between intraspecific interaction and symbiosis. A colony is the fusion of mutually benefiting individuals, often physiologically integrated into a super-organism. The mechanisms governing colonial interactions are complex, and often operate at many hierarchical levels simultaneously. Recent clarifications of the physiology of super-organisms have been facilitated by advances in molecular genetics and imaging techniques.

            By studying colonialism in the context of symbiosis and hierarchical complexity, a more complete understanding of the functionality of colonialism can be reached. The tenets of symbiosis, particularly the modes of interaction and potential benefits to symbiotic relationships, serve as a departure point for studying the intraspecific cooperation and resource sharing that characterize colonial marine invertebrates.

            Composed of numerous hierarchically organized modules, siphonophores are colonial marine invertebrates whose organization and development is as beautifully complex as the organism is visually appealing. Siphonophores possess the highest degree of polymorphism, the most complex ordered programmatical development, and the highest degree of integration of colonial marine invertebrates.

            A synthesized lexicon of terminology, structures, systematics, and developmental principles will be fruitfully applied to design, but the implications extend beyond this application. This cross-fertilization of knowledge systems will lead to a more informed perspective on the considerations of design methodology, as well as a novel approach to the design of buildings across a wide range of scales.

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THE USE OF MERCURY AMALGAM AS A DENTAL FILLING AND THE SEARCH FOR NON-TOXIC SUBSTITUTES        

Daniel Bienstock

Advisor:  Francis Mante

            The element mercury (Hg) contained within silver-amalgam filling, a commonly used dental material, poses a human-health threat to our environment. If not disposed of properly, Hg from dental amalgam can contaminate public water supplies if the element is introduced into the waste stream.

            I conducted a survey of 83 dentists in New York State in order to investigate their use and management of dental amalgam. My survey addressed three topics: 1) amalgam use, 2) state regulations and dentist compliance, and 3) the extent of understanding by dentists of the environmental effects of amalgam. My results show 1) no systematic increase in the use of amalgam for 98.7% of dentists surveyed, 2) overall good compliance with and understanding of state regulations by those dentists, and (3) fair knowledge of the environmental effects of amalgam by those dentists.

            Many alternates to Hg amalgam have been developed since the health risks of Hg have been understood. One such alternative was a Hg-free resin to which rubber was added to increase the toughness of the filling material to the level of conventional Hg amalgam. T-tests show that addition of 3% rubber significantly increases the toughness of the existing composite (p=5%).

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PRESERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY ON MILITARY RESERVATIONS

Erin Cho

Advisor:  Robert Giegengack, EES, SAS

            Throughout human history, one of the unfortunate consequences of warfare has been environmental degradation and the resultant harm to wildlife. Those who study the relationship between war and the environment typically focus on the negative impacts: devastated landscapes, eradication of plants and animals, depletion of resources, and deliberate environmental damage used as a weapon.

            However, war or military action can, in certain instances, be beneficial to our surroundings. For example, “no-man’s lands” keep humans away who otherwise would destroy the habitat of wildlife through residential activities—including farming, industrialization, and the inevitable production of waste and pollution. Military bases serve as “de facto nature preserves” due to a lack of civilian interference, and certain species of animals are able to thrive as a result of war, such as those that feed on battlefield corpses. My study of several cases of military protection of large areas of land demonstrates that the presence and activities of armed forces in an area can have the positive effect of helping transform the territory of hostile tension into a safe haven for threatened and endangered plants and animals.

            My study of three cases supports this conclusion: Korea’s DMZ, Guantanamo Bay in Cuba, and Isla Vieques (an island off Puerto Rico). At these three military sites, the exclusion of civilian interference has ensured the preservation of biodiversity.

DENGUE FEVER IN PAKISTAN

Ali Faisal

Advisor:  Harvey Rubin, School of Medicine, Director of ISTAR

Dengue Fever is the fastest growing vector-borne infectious disease in the world. The incidence of Dengue Fever rose above background levels in Pakistan in September 2006 and quickly became an epidemic.

I gathered information on the history of the virus, recent outbreaks, and trends. I studied the best available methods of preventing the disease and confining its spread. I identified the problems the government and the people of Pakistan faced during the 2006 epidemic, and the economic, environmental and social implications of the epidemic. I hope to evaluate the effectiveness of the government’s efforts to control this epidemic. I also hope to help formulate a strategy to address future Dengue Fever emergencies and control populations of mosquitoes, the insect vector of the disease.

 I interviewed officials from the Ministry of Health, and from local hospitals, as well as some patients. I learned that some actions of the government were effective, but that others were inefficient, due to lack of experience and guidance. My study of the 2006 Dengue Fever epidemic in Pakistan has helped me understand the trajectory of disease outbreak in a developing country, and will have application to other public-health crises in other locations.

Lilla Finta-Peterffy

Lake Saint Anna and the adjacent Mohos Marshes lie in the craters of two adjacent dormant volcanoes. Together these features represent a valuable resource for environmental recreation and education in modern Transylvania (Romania). Programs to exploit this potential have been hampered by uncertainty as to the true ownership of the land. 

I will recount both the natural and political history of this unusual landscape, and offer suggestions for its development as an environmental and educational resource for the citizens of Romania and the world. 

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FOREST-MANAGEMENT PRACTICES TO CONTROL WILDFIRES IN THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS

Patrick Fisher

Much evidence supports the conclusion that wildfire has been an important feature of ecosystems in the Rocky Mountains since at least the Holocene epoch. The region’s seasonal climate patterns, frequent summer lightning storms, and assemblage of combustible plant types have contributed to natural fire cycles; thus, many organisms in these forests have adapted over evolutionary time to tolerate wildfire. However, today’s forests may not have the same composition as the forests of the past. In particular, European colonization has significantly altered the structure of forest communities in the Rocky Mountains by introducing the practices of animal grazing, mining, and agriculture. In addition, more than a century of fire suppression has led to the accumulation of unnaturally high fuel loads in some ecosystem types. These ecosystems—dry ponderosa pine forests, for example—may pose the risk of catastrophic wildfires that replace forest stands and damage plant communities, soils, and watersheds in unnatural and unprecedented ways. Catastrophic wildfires also threaten human life and property; as human populations at the urban-wildland interface continue to grow, mitigating the risk of such fires has become a priority.

My paper is primarily concerned with two contentious questions in forest ecology. The first question is whether or not forests should be managed to prevent wildfires; the second addresses the best ways to manage a burn area after a wildfire. To address the first question, I will cite ecological evidence to show how forest communities have been altered in previous decades to produce unnaturally high fuel loads. These fuel loads pose significant ecological, social, and economic risks which may be averted through a combination of management strategies, such as prescription burning and thinning. To address the second question, I will cite evidence for and against various post-fire management practices. In particular, I will analyze the practice of post-fire timber salvage and its ecological consequences. Scientific studies have not found this practice to yield significant ecological benefits.

I use the 2002 Missionary Ridge fire in Durango, Colorado, to document  the local ecological, economic, and social risks posed by catastrophic wildfire. I will review evolution of the Missionary Ridge fire complex and describe the chronology of the fire’s suppression and its ecological, social, and economic costs. I will analyze changes in forest management implemented in the region since the Missionary Ridge fire, and I will evaluate current local debates about management strategies appropriate to the burn area. In the future, understanding wildfire at a local level may be instructive in generalizing forest-management policies in the Rocky Mountains.

GLOBAL CLIMATE CHANGE AND ITS POTENTIAL EFFECT ON HURRICANE INTENSITY

Thomas Gibson

Advisor:  Robert Giegengack, EES, SAS

            Global warming and hurricane destruction, especially in the wake of the damage caused by Hurricane Katrina in August-September 2005, are both political hot-button issues; some scientists have asserted that there is a link between the two phenomena.  The IPCC has reported an increase of 0.74 °C in average global temperature in the last 100 years (IPCC 2007).  The primary cause for concern is that, as global temperature rises, so does sea-surface temperature (SST), which fuels the intensity of a hurricane.  Another issue is that the technology used to collect hurricane wind speeds was advanced in 1961 when satellite technology began to be used extensively to measure wind speeds, storm diameter, storm trajectory, and storm duration. To establish the longest possible record of hurricanes, we must reconcile the data collected before and after introduction of satellite modeling.

            I have evaluated three different methods that have been used to characterize hurricane wind speeds measured by satellites in the same units that were used prior to 1961: the 2005 Emanuel method, the 2006 Landsea method, and the 2007 Landsea-Emanuel method. I conducted an analysis of all hurricanes from 1950 to 2006 with a maximum sustained wind speed (MSWS) of 100 miles per hour or greater.  I performed statistical analyses on the MSWS of each storm. My first analysis was of the dataset that contains actual measured wind speeds; my second analysis was of the 2005 Emanuel corrected wind speeds, my third analysis was of the 2006 Landsea corrected wind speeds, and my fourth analysis used the 2007 Landsea-Emanuel corrected wind speeds.  An examination of the regression lines associated with each dataset shows that the R2 values of the 2005 Emanuel and the 2007 Landsea-Emanuel corrected datasets indicate that a fair percentage (11.4% and 9.2%) of the increased MSWS of each storm was due to an increase in temperature.  The actual measured and the 2004 Landsea corrected datasets showed nearly no increase in MSWS, with 3% and 0.2% of the increase being related to an increase in temperature, respectively.  What is clear is that the actual record of measured wind speeds is far too short to draw any reliable conclusions from statistical analyses.  It is not yet clear how to correct for the large uncertainties inherent in the wind speeds collected prior to 1961, so it is impossible to draw any conclusions as to whether increasing SSTs have led to a significant increase in maximum wind speed of hurricanes.

Citation

Intergovernmental Panel on Global Climate Change (IPCC).“Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis.”   Available at http://www.ipcc.ch/SPM2feb07.pdf (19 April, 2007).

ALDO LEOPOLD, RACHEL CARSON, AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF BIOCENTRIC THOUGHT IN AMERICA

Aviva Horrow

Advisor: Phoebe Kropp, History Department, SAS

Biocentrism is the belief that all life and elements of the universe are equally valuable and that humanity is not the center of existence.  Rather than focusing solely on human needs and gains, biocentrism offers a more holistic, all-encompassing world view that stresses the interconnected relationship of all elements of the environment.  In placing value on all elements of nature, biocentrism has moral implications for human interactions with animals, plants, and the physical environment. 

In transcending natural human tendencies toward anthropocentrism, biocentrism has existed on the periphery of Western thought as a radical idea, overshadowed by more mainstream expressions of environmentalism.  Historian Roderick Nash remarked that, in the nineteenth century, “the few Americans who did talk about nature in ethical terms…were not even dignified by ridicule; most often, they were ignored completely.”  Indeed, histories that take note of biocentrism tend to cite Aldo Leopold as its founder in the 1940s, and Rachel Carson as one of its popularizers in the early 1960s.  Aldo Leopold and Rachel Carson are two luminaries in environmental history who, through their writings and canonical works (Leopold’s A Sand County Almanac and Carson’s Silent Spring), clarified environmental thought and were instrumental in disseminating elements of biocentrism into the greater public.  Their biocentrism, however, is informed by their biocentric predecessors and the historical context of the development of environmental thought in America.

Early biocentric works from the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries are characterized by observations of rapidly changing surroundings, initial reactions to industrialization and urbanization, new spiritual and religious approaches toward nature, the impact of Darwin's theory of evolution, the emergence of the field of ecology, and the extension of ethics to include the American perception of nature.  These elements contributed to the formation of early biocentric thought in wilderness explorer John Muir, Cornell Professor of Horticulture Liberty Hyde Bailey, Harvard Professor of Geology Nathaniel Southgate Shale, and linguist and religious scholar Edward Payson Evans.  These people prepared society for a biocentric mode of thought by challenging mainstream anthropocentrism and imagining a novel, nature-centered world view.  Their contributions contextualize Leopold and Carson within the framework of greater American environmental thought.

Transcending more superficial responses to particular resource-management practices or immediate problems of pollution, biocentric thinkers emphasized the need to consider deeper principles guiding human interactions. They established ethical principles as the metric by which to judge the interaction between humans and nature.  My investigation into the development of biocentric thought reveals the need to step back and evaluate society’s values and underlying philosophy toward nature.  With this foundation we can evaluate more critically the contemporary environmental values that underlie current environmental policy.

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WATER-DELIVERY STRATEGIES TO ENHANCE THE PRODUCTIVITY OF RAIN-FED AGRICULTURE IN THE DEVELOPING WORLD

Ryan Jones

Advisor:  Stanley Laskowski, EES, SAS

The scarcity of water in the poorest parts of the developing world is one of the primary obstacles in the effort to alleviate worldwide poverty. Agriculture accounts for more than 70 percent of water withdrawals in the most water-stressed regions of the world, so reduction or mitigation of the amount of water used in agriculture can go a long way toward solving water-scarcity problems.

The vast majority of water withdrawn for agriculture goes toward irrigated agriculture, which accounts for only 45 percent of world food output. The rest is provided to small, rain-fed farms, usually family-owned and operated. These families are among the poorest in the world. Yields from most rain-fed farms fall far short of their potential. This paper examines two scales of programs designed to enhance the agricultural productivity of these farms – large-scale, usually government-sponsored, damming and irrigation programs, and smaller, household-based water-management projects. I have learned that even the simplest techniques can yield substantial positive results, and that any effort to implement water-management projects in the developing world must be accompanied by engagement with and social development of the communities that will benefit from those projects.

COMPOSITION OF THE SOIL IN THE GARDEN OF SAYRE HIGH SCHOOL, WEST PHILADELPHIA

Carli M. Koshal

Advisor:  Niva Kramek, Marty Dranoff, EES, SAS

The Sayre High School garden is located in a central courtyard, surrounded on all sides by the school building. The courtyard has only recently been converted to a garden. Previously the area was overgrown with weeds and grasses, and it was probably also used as a disposal site for construction waste and other debris. When the area was converted to a garden, the weeds and grasses were removed, large pieces of debris were removed, and a layer of topsoil was added to that part of the courtyard that would be converted to a garden. In spite of this history, most plot areas not only support plants, but also yield vegetables. There are, however, two sources of concern:

1)  One area of the main plot has not supported cultivated plants since the garden was constructed. In that segment of the garden, the only successful vegetation is weeds.

2) Traces of the toxic element lead (Pb) have been discovered on the garden vegetables.

The second concern may represent a health hazard, since vegetables taken from this garden are consumed by the students and their families.

I analyzed soil samples from the garden for essential plant nutrients: total available Carbon (C) and Nitrogen (N); total Calcium (Ca), Potassium (K), and Magnesium (Mg). I also analyzed soil samples for heavy metals: Copper (Cu), Zinc (Zn), and Lead (Pb). My analyses show that nutrient levels are well within the range of acceptable values, as are Zn and Pb. pH values were also in the optimal growth range. The only source of concern that emerged from my analysis is the level of Cu, which approaches the level that is toxic to plant growth in several of the soil samples, but does not pose a threat to the health of those who consume produce from the garden. Chemical reactions between Cu and other soil components may reduce the effective toxicity of Cu in this soil. Further study will be undertaken to characterize the source and fate of Cu in this soil.

THE URBAN DRAINAGE MODELING OF THE KATHRIGUPPE VALLEY, BANGALORE, INDIA

Devin Kothari

Advsior:  John Keenan, SEAS

            Many urban-drainage problems prevail in the city of Bangalore. Of particular concern are the sanitary sewers, which cause extensive flooding despite their relatively large capacities.  To assess these sanitary-sewer overflows and to promote a healthier lifestyle through the elimination of flooding, I undertook a computerized study using EPA SWMM 5.0 for a small part of the city (the Kathriguppe Valley). I analyzed the interconnections between storm and sanitary drain facilities and the effects of wet-weather runoff from rooftops on flooding.  I also assessed projected population stresses to assist the Bangalore Water Supply and Sewage Board to understand the changes to the drainage system that will be necessary to accommodate these stresses.

            My first analyses tested the ideal system design, with the sewers only receiving dry-weather flow.  In this scenario, there was no flooding or surcharging.  The existing configuration of the system, however, forced the model to incorporate runoff from rooftop drains into these sewers, leading to analysis of wet-weather impacts as well.  In this more realistic scenario, significant flooding occurred even during low-intensity storms.

            This conclusion led to the development of two master planning scenarios: 1) flow reduction of wet-weather inputs, and 2) changes in pipe infrastructure to accommodate the increased flows.  In the first case, I tested 50%, 75%, and complete runoff reduction with increasing degrees of success.  The complete runoff reduction (the equivalent of a dry-weather flow run) resulted in no flooding.  In the second case, I tested only two scenarios: 1) adding lateral pipes and 2) upsizing pipe diameters.  These two scenarios also showed increasing degrees of success, although neither option eliminated flooding/surcharging completely.

            Based on these results, it is clear that there are only two ways to eliminate the flooding experienced in the Kathriguppe Valley: 1) exclude from the system all wet-weather runoff, or 2) reduce wet-weather runoff and modify pipe infrastructure.  The only strategy that will completely eliminate flooding for any storm size is to disconnect the rooftop drains from the sanitary pipes.  All other changes, even to account for low-intensity storms and their input to the sanitary system, would paralyze the city’s infrastructure and would require an extensive political and financial commitment.

HOW SOIL CARBON DYNAMICS ARE AFFECTED BY AGRICULTURAL POLICY IN THE US AND EUROPE       

Alexandra Kougentakis

Advisor: Arthur Johnson, EES, SAS

Soil organic carbon (SOC) is a crucial component of the global carbon budget, affecting all Earth systems and playing a crucial role in many geo-processes. Agricultural practices strongly affect the dynamics of SOC, and the environmental impact of farms makes it necessary to study the interplay between agricultural systems and SOC levels. Within the overarching category of industrial agriculture, conventional and conservation methods are distinguished from each other by the focus of the latter upon maintaining soil quality through less severe mechanical treatments. The tillage system is the principal point of distinction, with the more intensive tillage of conventional agriculture resulting in the reduction of SOC levels. Agricultural and soil-management policies play a crucial role in determining soil quality, and the disparities of policies of the United States and Europe, especially with regard to conservation tillage, are largely reflected by the differences in soil health. The traditions in both the practice and research of agriculture on the two continents contribute significantly to the body of knowledge in the field, and each scientific culture can learn lessons from the other in pursuing the development of a broadly sustainable agricultural strategy.

More than for its agricultural significance, however, the recent upsurge in interest over SOC is a consequence of the attention directed to the phenomenon of global warming. The potential of soil to serve as a carbon sink is of great interest for sequestration efforts, and the large proportion of global land used for agriculture makes that potential attractive. The process of carbon storage is reversed, however, by intensive tillage processes that make the soil a source of carbon emissions. Much of the research currently being done on SOC dynamics has been driven by the global-warming discussion. However, the ecological problems of desertification, soil erosion, water contamination, and reduced productivity, all of which result from SOC depletion, suggest that a greater emphasis on these issues would be more appropriate, and perhaps more lasting. Alteration of agricultural practices to retain SOC offers promise of improving global environmental quality in ways that transcend the potential role of SOC retention in reversing global warming.

However, the solution is not quite as simple as merely reducing the scale of tillage across the board; careful consideration of economic impact as well as environmental trade-offs is necessary. In order to create a policy in which optimal environmental treatment intersects with optimization of profit, compromises are necessary on both sides, and practices must be tailored toward the needs of a specific site based on its history, soil type, and other relevant factors. Policy recommendations should be drawn from research on SOC and the effects of both environmental factors and specific farming practices. Both the USA and France support significant research efforts in this field.

THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF MILITARY NUCLEAR TECHNOLOGY

Matthew Lambach

Advisor: Ann Greene, History, SAS

            The United States used two nuclear weapons in World War II to defeat the Japanese.  Americans, however, faced a different risk from development of the nuclear military tool: exposure to radiation released in testing nuclear weapons.  For 46 years, the Department of Defense and the Atomic Energy Commission conducted over 1,112 tests of nuclear weapons; many of those tests released radiation into the atmosphere, soil, and water.  Once the health risk of radioactive fallout became apparent, many military personnel involved in the testing and citizens who lived near the test sites tried to win tort compensation in court.  However, plaintiffs failed to prove causation from individual tests.  Nonetheless, once the environmental movement gained nationwide momentum, the US government began to implement legislation to address the claims brought by citizens and activist groups for compensation for damages incurred as a consequence of the nuclear-weapons testing program.

            Through the Federal Tort Claims Act, the National Environmental Policy Act, and the Radiation Exposure Compensation Act, some individuals received some compensation.  However, the courts have denied approximately 78% of the claims filed.  In the period after World War II, Americans developed an aversion to the testing of nuclear weapons. The voice of American public opinion was one of the strongest drivers of the political change that led to a ban of nuclear-weapons testing.

            Despite the progress made, the negative environmental impact of nuclear-weapons testing has caused over $50 billion in damage to test sites across the United States.  Damage to the economies of communities near the test sites and to the lifestyles of people in those communities has not been reversed.  In the present regulatory environment, it seems unlikely that funds will be allocated to remove radioactive waste from the vicinity of those communities. The United States served as a leader in drafting a ban on nuclear-weapons testing; it can now serve as a leader in the environmental cleanup of the communities most adversely affected by the testing program.

A SURVEY OF RELATIONSHIPS AMONG KALULI, TUVAN, AND AFGHAN SONIC CULTURES AND THEIR ENVIRONMENTS

Mitchell Manger

Sounds derived from the natural environment have been noted in many cultures as an inspiration for sonic composition. This paper examines the ways in which three sonic cultures, the Kaluli people of Bosavi, Tuvans, and Afghans, perceive the natural environment around them and incorporate their interpretations of acoustic, tactile, and visual aspects of that environment into their own sonic systems of communication. The Kaluli compare hydrological flow to the sensual flow of the voice through the body’s contours, and implement that metaphor when highlighting the paths of a person’s life in poetic song text. Also, the dependence of much Kaluli ornithological taxonomy upon birdsong and the use of bird sounds to embody feelings about death and the spirit reflection realm are unique sonic qualities uncommon in Afghan or Tuvan cultures. Tuvans more often represent visual characteristics and non-hydrological geologic processes of the environment in non-texted sonic content, and further prioritize immediate interaction with sonic characteristics, largely for animist purposes. Afghans value immediate interaction with birds, such as the canary or nightingale, in their music, largely as a means for self-identification and amalgamation of two “musical” languages (bird and human), but do not interact with or timbrally symbolize geologic processes in song. The analytical results of these case studies yield observations on how sensory (notably sonic) orientations dominate in, recede in, and perceive various ecosystems, but most notably shows how these perceptions are interpreted and embedded into cultural material.

EXTRA NOTES:

All of these cultures hear much that they do not see. Nonetheless, the Kaluli deal with a greater diffuseness of sound due to arboreal habitat of the rainforest. Thus, the Kaluli develop acute hearing for locational orientation (Feld 1998). Would the herding lifestyle of the Tuvans on the steppe imply comparatively less hearing accuracy? The ability to located domesticated animals that have strayed from herds on the steppe, or the hunting needs in the taiga (forest) of eastern Tuva, would indicate a great need, but not as great as that of the Kaluli.

The dependence of much Kaluli ornithological taxonomy upon birdsong is not paralleled in Afghan or Tuvan music, but the flow of water plays a role in the latter two cultures. Tuvans more commonly represent visual characteristics and non-hydrological, geologic processes of the environment in the non-lyrical content of their music, and prioritize immediate interaction with sonic characteristics. Afghans prioritize the immediacy of interaction with birds such as the canary or nightingale in their music, but do not sonically symbolize geological processes in song.

TOWARD AN ENVIRONMENTALLY RESPONSIBLE WINE-MAKING INDUSTRY

Maura Pape

Advisor:  Gerald McDermott, Wharton

As consumers have become increasingly aware of the environmental impacts of winemaking, there has been a worldwide push toward cleaner production in the industry.  A major challenge now confronting vineyards is how to balance the competing goals of economic profit and clean production.  The concept of firm upgrading sits at the nexus of these concerns, and addresses a firm’s ability to make a move toward higher-value products and more efficient processes through a course of continuous improvement.  An element of sustainability is implied by the process of upgrading, as the decisions a firm makes today must not hinder its ability to make future progress.  Technology choice is crucial to the discussion, as it is the force behind both a firm’s ability to improve economically and its subsequent environmental footprint. 

Through a case study of Argentine vineyards, I have examined both the implications of upgrading and the technological drivers behind it.  The results of my statistical analysis suggest that similarities in technology in use at a given facility cannot be used to determine whether a firm has upgraded.  Furthermore, it appears that an understanding of new technologies necessary for upgrading is not dependent simply upon a network of information exchange within limited geographic areas, but can be transmitted to firms through several different types of outside entities.  I will evaluate the implications of these findings for the construction of environmental policy and environmental management systems.

AGRITOURISM: A SUSTAINABLE SOLUTION FOR STRUGGLING FARMERS

Sabina Pendse

            During the 19th century, more than half of all Americans were employed in the agriculture industry.  Today, that number is less than 1% of the population, and a similar decline has been documented in most other developed nations.  In developing nations, however, much of the labor force, and thus the national economies of those countries, depends on this struggling industry.  As more and more farms are replaced by large factory farms, families struggle to keep their smaller, family-owned and -operated farms profitable. Because farmers in developing nations are faced with an ever-declining resource base, they must look to new markets for both present survival and future growth. 

            I have studied agritourism—activity on a farm, ranch, or other agricultural facility, conducted for the enjoyment of visitors, that generates income for the farm owner–as a potential solution for farmers in developing nations.  I have examined the contemporary subsistence-agriculture industry and the economic, political, and social factors that have led to its decline. I will show why agritourism is a viable solution to the problems farmers face.  My study illustrates the potential benefits of agritourism, not only for farmers, but also for tourists, local communities, and the overall environment, even though it presents unprecedented challenges for farmers steeped in traditional patterns of subsistence agriculture.

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LAND REFORM IN TWO LATIN AMERICAN COUNTRIES: BRAZIL AND VENEZUELA

Graham Prentice

         Despite the massive scale of rural-to-urban migration and global market integration that continues into the 21st century, the persistent problems of underdevelopment and poverty remain largely rural challenges.  Two-thirds of the world’s poor live in rural areas, as livelihoods that were once both socially productive and environmentally sustainable have been undermined at an alarming rate.  Due to rampant inequality exacerbated by the widespread embrace of neo-liberal economic policies by many political regimes, the food security of millions hangs in the balance, not to mention basic human rights and development goals in health and education.  Access to land in rural areas is understood to be the fundamental route to overcoming these challenges and providing peasants a means of both food sovereignty and income generation.  It is in this context that land reform (defined as equity-driven and legally enforced redistribution of existing land-tenure systems) has returned to the development agenda, endorsed in various forms by groups as diverse as radical peasant movements and the World Bank.

         In Latin America in particular, neo-liberal economic policies have failed to sustain economic growth in recent decades, even as they have worsened poverty and inequality. This combination has led to the emergence of a new wave of leftist politics in the region.  Ranging from the moderate reformist platform of Brazilian President Luis Inacio “Lula” da Silva to the socialist ambitions of Hugo Chavez Frias’s ‘Bolivarian Revolution’ in Venezuela, new regimes are defining what their political economy of land reform will be in the new century.  An initial assessment of legal statutes and available statistics indicates that Lula has generally been forced to continue the neo-liberal political economy of his predecessor, mitigating agrarian-reform efforts in favor of the large agri-business corporations that maintain Brazil’s budget surplus.  In Venezuela, on the other hand, Chavez has capitalized on his nation’s rich petroleum resources to radically alter macro-economic policy in favor of deep spending on a wide variety of social programs.  However, while Brazil benefits from the most organized grassroots peasant movement for land reform in the world, Chavez’s hopes for meaningful agrarian change hinge upon his administration’s ability to both overcome institutional obstacles and deepen the popular movement for reform.
        
         Both of these nations serve societies affected with high-amplitude inequality amidst a wealth of natural resources; more time will be required to tell which political economy of land reform will be more sustainable in the long term.  However, it seems that agrarian reform (in its various modes) has been accepted as an effective tool for promoting both social justice and a more environmentally sustainable model of agriculture, and will remain a focus of the development agenda.  Meanwhile, the relative success of land reform in Brazil and Venezuela will have implications for the future of community and national development, agriculture, and poverty in the world, as we attempt to carve out a more just global society in years to come.

ADAPTABLE DESIGN: A VIABLE SUBSTITUTE FOR RECYCLING OF BUILDING MATERIALS

Leila Salim

            The demolition/building industry is a primary contributor to solid waste in America, and this waste is increasingly expensive to dispose of. Recycling is cost-effective for some materials, but reuse is rarely economically feasible, as buildings are made up of many components that can be difficult or impossible to separate. But if buildings were designed to be deconstructable, efficient reuse and recycling would follow with ease. Furthermore, if buildings were designed to last, to be flexible, and to adapt to unexpected future changes, building waste would decrease dramatically. Almost half of disposed building waste in the USA comes from residential sources, while commercial buildings lead the way in adaptability.

            I studied housing in the USA in terms of design program, scenario planning, and construction and renovation practices. I examined the extent to which adaptability approaches developed in commercial building projects are applied to the design and construction of housing units. I chose case studies of modern housing construction from local developments by Toll Brothers, Inc. I selected one case for specific critique, adaptation, and redesign with an adaptability approach, which I illustrated in scale drawings and a model. I applied life-cycle analysis to my case study, using embodied energy and financial savings as metrics to approximate the benefits of the adaptability approach over time. My study demonstrates that the housing industry offers immense opportunities for adaptable design, and that the adaptable-design approach offers substantial financial savings over the life cycle of the home while reducing its environmental impact.

WHO DECIDES HOW TO REBUILD NEW ORLEANS?

Alexander Silvester

            In August 2005, Hurricane Katrina struck the Gulf Coast of the USA, causing extensive damage and killing over a thousand people. The levees failed in multiple places, inundating the city with water. Neighborhoods were completely submerged except for the roofs of their houses. Residents were scattered across the country, and many of them do not have the resources to go back to New Orleans and rebuild their homes and livelihoods. New Orleans has become a city without people, full of abandoned and destroyed structures. New Orleans has become an environmental, political, economic, and human disaster.

            The present challenge has become the need to rebuild the city. That goal, while not questioned by many, is loaded, because it assumes the city will and should be rebuilt. Currently there are many voices trying to influence the rebuilding, from government of all levels, to FEMA, to city planners, to community activists, to scientists. The voice or voices that will eventually prevail is difficult to predict, because each stakeholder favors a vested interest which vastly complicates the dialogue and the eventual result. Most stakeholders have chosen to pursue their vested interests and thus do not seek a comprehensive plan based on demonstrable facts. Many issues regarding redevelopment, such as the vulnerability of the city to a repetition of Katrina, or the biases exercised by various groups, are suppressed or dismissed.

            Conflicts among competing interests have brought the process of rebuilding New Orleans to a standstill. The recovery of the city is progressing extremely slowly because no plan has been proposed and followed. Politicians repeatedly change their positions to appease the changing demands of evolving constituencies. New Orleans offers a textbook example of a rebuilding strategy that is dictated by business interests. The quandary of New Orleans also shows how easily people will accept a decision offered by a political leader without exploring the data on which that decision was based.

A DECLARATION OF ENERGY INDEPENDENCE: Is Brazil’s policy of oil self-sufficiency sustainable?

Brandon Staub

Advisor: Robert Giegengack, EES, SAS

Brazil’s government formally declared “energy independence,” a term used to describe the condition in which a country’s oil exports exceed oil imports, in April 2006.  I have undertaken a study of the sustainability of this policy of oil self-sufficiency.  To determine whether a shortfall in energy supply is likely, I have compared a forecast of the total energy demand in Brazil – based on a variety of factors, but principally the statistically significant relationship between growth in energy demand and growth in real GDP– and a forecast of the individual components of Brazil’s energy supply.  Given the probability of a shortfall, the question remains whether Brazil would be forced to compensate by altering the balance of its oil trade.

Brazil’s oil independence is sustainable – but not due to the bioethanol ‘miracle’ to which many would instinctively point.  Rather, oil independence is sustainable because of the remarkable growth in Brazilian oil production that has resulted from the aggressive oil exploration of Brazil’s state-owned oil monopoly (Petrobrás), made possible by its cutting-edge deepwater-drilling technology, and because a majority of the growth in energy demand in Brazil will most likely come in the form of demand for electricity rather than for fuel.  Moreover, growth in the bioethanol industry will be much slower than many predict, given environmental concerns and anxiety regarding the impact of bioethanol production on the food supply. The declaration of energy independence in April 2006 by Brazilian President Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva certainly called attention to Brazil and its well-established bioethanol industry, but it did nothing to prove that bioethanol will be a viable alternative to dependence on Middle East oil, as many politicians and the media have suggested it would become.

Furthermore, while Brazil should be able to sustain its policy of oil independence, in doing so it will divert investments from the hydropower, natural gas, and nuclear-energy industries.  As a result, Brazil will be forced either to import greater electric capacity or to leave itself vulnerable to electricity shortages.  In securing its oil independence, Brazil will only retreat further from the notion of complete energy independence.

ENVIRONMENTAL PERCEPTIONS AND RESOURCE USE OF INDIGENOUS INHABITANTS OF THE PERUVIAN RAIN FOREST

Lindsey Noele Swiacki

Advisor: Stephen R. Madigosky, Widener University

Deforestation in the Amazon Basin is a pressing issue that has been addressed by many types of conservation policies and international collaborations.  However, in order for conservation plans to be effective, the needs and opinions of local people who are intimately connected with the Amazon rainforest must be taken into consideration.  In this study I analyze surveys conducted in 2006 in small villages surrounding Iquitos, northwestern Peru, by a team of investigators under the direction of Stephen Madigosky. I applied my analysis to seven of the ten villages surveyed; my analysis will be extended as more data are generated.  Surveys were distributed to heads of households (n=100, currently), and respondents included both men (69%) and women (31%) of all ages (average age= 38 ± 15 years) and levels of education (average = 6.1 ± 3.2 years).  Surveys were designed so that six questions directly addressed use of forest resources, and forty-one questions probed the respondent’s environmental consciousness. 

My results show that the surveyed population relies primarily on the forest and river for meat, fish, and building materials.  Fruits, edible plants, and firewood were mostly procured from cultivated gardens or farms.  The local market or nearby city was not a primary source for any resource exploited by the surveyed population.  Patterns of use of environmental resources were not statistically related to age, gender, or level of education of the respondent.  

I converted the responses to the forty-one questions that addressed environmental perception to a scale of “agree” or “disagree”. I noted responses that lay significantly above or below the “null” response.  The surveyed population almost unanimously described the forest as very important to themselves and their families, and the population believed that local natural resources were sufficient to support their communities.  The surveyed population noticed environmental changes in the forest surrounding their village, including changes in the river level, amount of rain, and abundance of fish and other animals.  However, the population did not believe that community members were over-hunting, over-fishing, or harvesting too many trees from the forest.  Results of the surveys suggest that, although these communities believed that the forest can provide resources indefinitely even if used harshly, they also believed that change the way natural resources are used would ensure future resource supply.  The surveyed population very strongly endorsed a proposal to provide environmental education within their communities.

            As more villages are incorporated into this analysis, trends in environmental perceptions and resource use will become more apparent.  I hope that surveys of this type will be used in future conservation and development strategies in the Amazon rainforest and in other environments that support indigenous human populations.

AMAZONIAN INDIANS AND ECO-POLITICS

Barbara Clare Tarpey

Advisor:  Greg Urban, Anthropology, SAS

            Since the mid-1980s, indigenous groups of the Amazon Basin have increasingly become focal points for NGO and first-world media attention. Worldwide, indigenous peoples have gained a greater political voice in national and international arenas as a result of political changes in South America and the increased focus upon human rights and multiculturalism in international discussions. Indigenous claims for self-determination and autonomy within the nation-state have been linked with environmental issues, due to convergent interests between indigenous land and human-rights claims, and the sustainability goals of transnational environmental NGOs. By capitalizing on the stereotype of the “ecologically noble savage”, groups such as the Waorani of Ecuador and the Kayapó of Brazil have both represented themselves and been described by others in terms of environmental stewards. However, such oversimplified, idealized representations of indigenous groups can have negative consequences when utilized by environmental NGOs to garner international support.

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AGENT ORANGE: AN INTERNATIONAL SOCIO-POLITICAL DILEMMA

Trung Van Truong

Agent Orange is a herbicide that was used during the Vietnam War as a defoliant, but now lies at the center of an international legal battleground because of its negative side effects on the environment and human health. Other incidents of herbicide poisoning among farmers in other countries have also implicated dioxin, one of the ingredients of Agent Orange. The litigation over Agent Orange is important because its outcome will establish a new precedent in environmental and international law. 

The VAVA now has standing to sue the American chemical companies that manufactured Agent Orange because of the increasingly tougher international laws that have been passed over the last two decades.

The use of Agent Orange has also led to debates about the definition of a  Just War. That discussion sheds light on the rationale whereby the American government and American chemical companies continued to manufacture and disperse Agent Orange, despite the well-documented evidence of its toxicity. 

Corporations are being held accountable for their business decisions in US federal courts.  I have studied the recent history of evolution of standards of business ethics, and the impact on those standards the Agent Orange litigation.

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THE BLACK LUNG CLINICS PROGRAM: AN EXPLORATORY AND EVALUATIVE STUDY

Kristin Wentzel

Advisor: Ted Emmett, School of Medicine

            Black lung has always been recognized as a side effect to a career in coal mining. Throughout the twentieth century physicians quarreled about the details of the disease and its impact on quality of life, preventing legislation to improve the health of miners from being created. However, in the late 1960s, after a series of strikes, demonstrations, and mining disasters, new mine-safety legislation was finally passed, and, for the first time, monetary compensation was awarded to miners disabled by black lung.

            In 1977, an amendment to the 1969 Coal Act was passed that gave Health and Human Services the power to grant funds for the operation of clinics devoted to the treatment of miners at risk for and suffering from respiratory illness. Today the Black Lung Clinics Program is run by the Office of Rural Health, in HRSA. Through research based on OMB evaluations, data collected from clinics, and personal interviews with program heads, I have evaluated the Black Lung Clinics Program against its goals and guidelines. In addition to looking at the program from a national level, I have chosen to evaluate the West Virginia Black Lung Clinics Program as an example of a grantee program.

            My evaluation focused on four main categories: services provided, finances, HRSA/grantee communication, and current evaluation methods and practices. Based on my results in each category, it is clear that the BLCP may in fact be working, but lacks oversight from HRSA.  Furthermore, the inadequacy of the evaluation methods employed by all agencies engaged in the program prevents a true evaluation from being made at this time.

            Based on the improvement guidelines outlined in the 2006 OMB evaluation and personal interviews, I will offer suggestions of improvements that can be made to make the program more effective and more accountable for its actions.

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