|
1789 |
may |
Meeting of the Estates General. |
|
|
july |
Fall of the Bastille. |
|
|
aug. |
Promulgation of the Declaration of the Rights of Man. |
|
|
oct. |
The royal family and the National Assembly brought to Paris. |
|
|
nov. |
Expropriation of the Church begins. |
|
|
|
Leblanc invents process for deriving soda from sea salt. |
|
1790 |
|
Death of Joseph II, succeeded by his brother Leopold II. |
|
|
july |
Civil Constitution of the Clergy. |
|
|
|
Burke, Reflections on the Revolution in France. |
|
|
|
Mozart, Cosí fan tutte. |
|
1791 |
may |
New Polish constitution. |
|
|
june |
Louis XVI’s flight to Varennes. |
|
|
|
Beginning of Saint-Domingue slave revolt. |
|
|
|
Mozart, The Magic Flute. |
|
|
|
Tom Paine, Rights of Man. |
|
|
|
Revolution government abolishes all guilds in France. |
|
|
|
Brandenburg Gate completed. |
|
1792 |
|
Death of Leopold II, accession of Francis II. |
|
|
apr. |
Wars of the French Revolution begin. |
|
|
aug. |
France becomes a republic. |
|
|
sept. |
Massacres in Paris. |
|
|
sept. |
Battle of Valmy. |
|
1793 |
jan. |
Execution of Louis XVI. |
|
|
mar. |
Counter-revolutionary revolt in the Vendée begins. |
|
|
apr. |
Committee of Public Safety established. |
|
|
aug. |
Levée en masse. |
|
|
sept |
Terror begins. |
|
|
|
Second partition of Poland. |
|
|
|
Last witch executed in Poland. |
|
|
|
Central Museum of the Arts opened in the Louvre. |
|
|
|
Revolutionary government in France abolishes all seigneurial claims, restrictions, and obligations. |
|
1794 |
july |
Battle of Fleurus. |
|
|
july |
Fall of Robespierre. |
|
|
|
Prussian Allgemeines Landrecht (General Legal Code) promulgated. |
|
1795 |
|
British occupation of Dutch colonies. |
|
|
|
Third partition leads to the extinction of the Polish state. |
|
|
|
Treaties of Basle end wars between France and Prussia and France and Spain. |
|
|
|
Belgium annexed to France. |
|
|
|
Crompton’s spinning mule is adapted for power. |
|
1796 |
|
Bonaparte conquers northern Italy. |
|
|
|
Catherine the Great of Russia dies; with the accession of her son, Paul I, Russia suspends its role in First Coalition. |
|
|
|
Trevithick begins to apply steam power to traction. |
|
|
|
Edward Jenner introduces vaccination against smallpox. |
|
1797 |
|
Treaty of Campo Formio ends war between France and Austria. |
|
1798 |
|
General Bonaparte leads an expedition to conquer Egypt. |
|
|
|
Battle of the Nile, a British fleet commanded by Nelson destroys Napoleon’s fleet. |
|
|
|
Irish rebellion. |
|
|
|
War of the Second Coalition. |
|
|
|
Wordsworth, Lyrical Ballads. |
|
|
|
Coleridge, Lyrical Ballads. |
|
|
|
Malthus, Essay on the Principle of Population. |
|
|
|
Haydn, Creation. |
|
|
|
Aloys Senefelder invents lithography. |
|
1798–9 |
|
Tennant and Macintosh invent bleaching powder for cloth. |
|
1799 |
mar. |
War between France and Austria resumes; Russia enters the war on the side of Austria; the French are expelled from Italy. |
|
|
oct. |
Bonaparte returns from Egypt. |
|
|
nov. |
Bonaparte seizes power in France. |
|
|
|
Collapse of Dutch East India Company. |
|
|
|
First water-driven spinning mule is set up in Saxony. |
|
1800 |
|
Battle of Marengo, Bonaparte defeats the Austrians. |
|
|
|
Battle of Hohenlinden, Moreau defeats the Austrians. |
|
|
|
Friedrich von Hardenberg alias Novalis, Hymns to the Night. |
|
|
|
Alessandro Volta demonstrates first electric battery. |
|
1801 |
|
Treaty of Lunéville ends war between France and Austria. |
|
|
|
Assassination of Paul I, accession of Alexander I. |
|
|
|
Bonaparte’s Concordat with the Pope. |
|
|
|
Act of Union unites Great Britain and Ireland. |
|
1802 |
|
Treaty of Amiens. |
|
|
|
Chateaubriand, The Genius of Christianity. |
|
1803 |
|
War resumes between France and Britain. |
|
|
|
France sells Louisiana to the USA. |
|
|
|
Imperial Recess decrees sweeping territorial changes in Germany, which ensure French domination. |
|
|
|
Widespread secularization of monasteries in Germany. |
|
|
|
Beethoven’s Third Symphony, ‘Eroica’, composed (first performed 1805). |
|
1804 |
|
Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor, proclaims himself also Emperor of Austria as Francis I, |
|
|
|
Bonaparte proclaims himself Emperor Napoleon I, is crowned by the Pope Pius VII. |
|
|
|
Code Napoléon enacted. |
|
1805 |
|
Bonaparte reorganizes Italy under direct French control. |
|
|
aug. |
The third coalition consisting of Britain, Austria, Russia, and Sweden is formed against France; war resumes on the continent. |
|
|
oct. |
Austrian army capitulates at Ulm. |
|
|
oct. |
Battle of Trafalgar. |
|
|
dec. |
Baffle of Austerlitz; Napoleon inflicts a crushing defeat on an Austro-Russian army. |
|
|
dec. |
Treaty of Pressburg; Russia withdraws from the war. |
|
1806 |
mar. |
Napoleon makes his brother Joseph King of Naples. |
|
|
june |
Napoleon makes his brother Louis King of the Netherlands. |
|
|
july |
Napoleon reorganizes Germany as the ‘Confederation of the Rhine’. |
|
|
aug. |
Formal end of the Holy Roman Empire when the Emperor |
|
|
|
Francis II abdicates and becomes Francis I of Austria. |
|
|
oct. |
Prussia declares war on France. |
|
|
oct. |
Battles of Jena and Auerstedt, Prussia defeated. |
|
1807 |
|
Russia rejoins war as Prussia’s ally; indecisive campaign in Poland. |
|
|
june |
Decisive French victory at Battle of Friedland. |
|
|
july |
Treaty of Tilsit ends war; France and Russia enter alliance. |
|
|
|
Portuguese royal family flees to Brazil. |
|
|
|
Fichte, Addresses to the German Nation. |
|
|
|
Caspar David Friedrich, The Cross in the Mountains. |
|
|
|
Britain abolishes the slave trade. |
|
|
|
Humphry Davy isolates sodium and potassium from their compounds. |
|
1808 |
|
Napoleon imposes his brother Joseph as King of Spain; Spanish people rise in revolt, assisted by the British army. |
|
|
|
Rome occupied by French troops. |
|
|
|
Goethe, Faust, Part I. |
|
1809 |
apr. |
War resumes between France and Austria. |
|
|
may |
Austrians defeat Napoleon at the Battle of Aspern-Essling. |
|
|
july |
Napoleon defeats the Austrians at the Battle of Wagram. |
|
|
oct. |
Treaty of Schönbrunn ends war between Austria and |
|
|
|
France. Papal States annexed to France. |
|
1810 |
|
Napoleon marries the Archduchess Marie Louise, |
|
|
|
daughter of the Emperor Francis I. |
|
|
|
Napoleon annexes the Netherlands to France. |
|
|
|
Napoleon annexes the north-western coast of Germany. |
|
|
|
Revolts against Spanish rule in Venezuela and Rio de la Plata (future Argentina). |
|
1811 |
|
‘Luddite’ machine-breaking riots in Britain. |
|
1812 |
|
Battle of Salamanca, defeat of French in Spain by army commanded by the Duke of Wellington. |
|
|
|
Goya, The Disasters of War. |
|
|
june |
Napoleon with his German and Italian satellites invades Russia. |
|
|
sept. |
Napoleon fights the indecisive Battle of Borodino and enters Moscow a week later. |
|
|
oct. |
Napoleon’s retreat from Moscow begins. |
|
|
dec. |
Remnants of Napoleon’s army leaves Russia. |
|
|
|
Henry Bell’s The Comet, the world’s first commercial steamship, begins operations on the Clyde. |
|
1813 |
feb. |
Treaty of Kalisch between Prussia and Russia. |
|
|
june |
Wellington defeats the French at Vittoria, prompting King Joseph to flee to France. |
|
|
aug. |
Austria declares war on France. |
|
|
oct. |
Napoleon is defeated at the Battle of Leipzig and loses control of Germany. |
|
|
dec. |
Prussian army under Blücher begins the invasion of France. |
|
|
|
Colombia declares independence from Spain. |
|
|
|
Rossini, Tancredi. |
|
1814 |
mar. |
Allies abandon attempt to negotiate with Napoleon and conclude Treaty of Chaumont for wartime and post-war alliance. |
|
|
mar. |
Wellington captures Bordeaux. |
|
|
apr. |
Napoleon abdicates, is exiled to the island of Elba; Louis XVIII returned to French throne. |
|
|
sept. |
General negotiations for a comprehensive peace settlement begin at Vienna. |
|
|
|
Uruguay declares independence from Spain. |
|
1815 |
mar. |
Napoleon returns from Elba |
|
|
june (18) |
Battle of Waterloo; Napoleon abdicates and is exiled to St Helena. |
|
|
|
Congress of Vienna completes restructuring of Europe. |
|
|
sept. |
Russia, Austria, and Prussia form the ‘Holy Alliance’. |
|
|
nov. |
Britain, Russia, Austria and Prussia form a Quadruple Alliance to maintain the Vienna settlement. |
|
|
nov. |
Second treaty of Paris reduces France to frontiers of 1790. |
|
|
|
Humphry Davy invents miner’s safety lamp. |
|
1816 |
|
Chile declares independence from Spain. |
|
1817 |
|
Wartburg Festival, liberal-nationalist demonstration by German students. |
|
1818 |
|
Hegel becomes Professor of Philosophy at the University of Berlin. |
|
|
|
Prado Museum founded at Madrid. |
|
1819 |
|
Carlsbad decrees suppressing political activity in Germany. |
|
|
|
First steam-powered ship (the Savannah) crosses the Atlantic. |
|
|
|
Peterloo Massacre at Manchester. |
|
|
|
Schopenhauer, The World as Will and Idea. |
|
|
|
Géricault, The Raft of the Medusa. |
|
|
|
Singapore founded by British East India Company. |
|
1820 |
|
Revolutions in Spain and Portugal. |
|
|
|
Spain cedes Florida to the United States. |
|
1820–21 |
|
Revolts in Naples and Piedmont and their repression. |
|
|
|
Conferences at Troppau and Laibach; European Concert splits over right of intervention. |
|
1821 |
|
Peru and Panama declare independence from Spain. |
|
|
|
Michael Faraday discovers electro-magnetic rotation. |
|
|
|
Death of Napoleon on St Helena. |
|
|
|
Carl Maria von Weber, Der Freischütz |
|
|
|
Klenze, Valhalla (completed 1842). |
|
|
|
Constable, Haywain. |
|
|
|
Hegel, Philosophy of Right. |
|
1822 |
|
Greek declaration of independence. |
|
|
|
Brazil declares independence from Portugal. |
|
|
|
Congress of Verona. |
|
|
|
Pushkin, Eugene Onegin. |
|
1823 |
|
French invasion of Spain to restore Bourbon authority. |
|
|
|
New South Wales becomes a Crown colony. |
|
|
|
Daniel O’Connell forms Catholic Association of Ireland. |
|
|
|
Beethoven, Missa Solemnis. |
|
|
|
Schinkel, Old Museum, Berlin (completed 1830). |
|
|
|
Robert Smirke, The British Museum (completed 1847). |
|
1824 |
|
Death of Byron at Missolonghi. |
|
|
|
Delacroix, Massacre of Chios. |
|
|
|
Beethoven, Symphony No. 9 (‘Choral’). |
|
1825 |
|
Decembrist revolt in Russia following death of Alexander I. |
|
|
|
Financial crash. |
|
|
|
Coronation of Charles X of France at Rheims. |
|
|
|
Opening of Stockton–Darlington railway, the first line to carry passengers. |
|
|
|
Financial crisis in London. |
|
|
|
Portugal recognizes the independence of Brazil. |
|
|
|
Bolivia declares independence from Spain. |
|
|
|
Manzoni, I Promessi Sposi. |
|
1827 |
|
Anglo–Russian–French alliance and intervention in Greek. |
|
|
|
War leads to destruction of the Turkish–Egyptian fleet at the Battle of Navarino. |
|
|
|
Joseph Niepce produces photographs on asphalt-coated plate. |
|
|
|
Death of Beethoven. |
|
|
|
Schubert, Die Winterreise. |
|
1828 |
|
Russo-Turkish War, Russian victory, French occupation of southern Greece. |
|
1829 |
|
Treaty of Adrianople ends Russo-Turkish War, leads to independent kingdom of Greece (1832). |
|
|
|
Catholic emancipation in Ireland and Britain. |
|
|
|
George and Robert Stephenson’s Rocket wins Liverpool–Manchester railway competition. |
|
1830 |
june |
French invade Algiers. |
|
|
july |
Revolution in Paris; Charles X flees; Louis Philippe becomes king. |
|
|
aug. |
Revolution in Belgium. |
|
|
sept. |
Revolts in Hesse, Brunswick, and Saxony |
|
|
nov.-1831 |
revolt in Poland. |
|
|
sept. |
Delacroix, Liberty Leading the People. |
|
|
|
Victor Hugo, Hernani. |
|
|
|
Stendhal, Scarlet and Black. |
|
1831 |
|
Belgium achieves recognition of independence from the Netherlands. |
|
|
|
Insurrection in Lyons. |
|
|
|
Darwin sails to South America on HMS Beagle. |
|
|
|
Chloroform invented. |
|
1831–2 |
|
Risings in Italy, especially in the Papal States, suppressed. |
|
1832 |
|
Great Reform Act in Britain. |
|
|
|
Britain declares sovereignty over the Falkland Islands. |
|
|
|
Mazzini founds ‘Young Italy’. |
|
|
|
Hambach festival, radical German demonstration. |
|
|
Karl Friedrich Gauss and Wilhelm Weber build first electric telegraph at Göttingen. |
|
|
|
|
Death of Goethe; posthumous publication of his Faust, part II. |
|
|
|
Berlioz, Symphonie fantastique. |
|
1832–3 |
|
First Turco-Egyptian War; Russia intervenes to save the Ottoman Sultan. |
|
1833 |
|
Treaty of Unkiar-Skelessi: Russia allies with Ottoman Empire. |
|
|
|
Holy Alliance renewed over Poland and the Ottoman Empire. |
|
1834 |
|
Workers’ revolt in Lyons. |
|
|
|
New Poor Law in England. |
|
|
|
Prussian customs union (Zollverein) founded. |
|
|
|
Carlist Wars begin in Spain; Britain and France ally to exclude the Holy Alliance. |
|
|
|
Slavery is abolished in all British possessions. |
|
1835 |
|
Donizetti, Lucia di Lammermoor. |
|
1836 |
|
Chartist agitation begins in Britain. |
|
|
|
Glinka, A Life for the Tsar. |
|
|
|
Charles Barry wins the competition to design the new |
|
|
|
Houses of Parliament (built 1840–70). |
|
|
|
Meyerbeer, Les Huguenots. |
|
1837 |
|
Accession of Queen Victoria. |
|
|
|
August Borsig’s iron foundry opened in Berlin. |
|
|
|
Electric telegraph patented. |
|
1838 |
|
H. G. Dyer and J. Hemming invent ammonia process for making soda. |
|
|
|
Louis Daguerre invents process for producing a silver image on a copper plate. |
|
|
|
Charles Dickens, Oliver Twist. |
|
1838–48 |
|
Chartist Movement in England. |
|
1839 |
|
Second Turco-Egyptian War; joint European intervention again saves Ottoman Sultan from defeat. |
|
|
|
Treaty of London, fixing Belgian–Dutch borders, guaranteeing Belgian neutrality and establishing independent Luxembourg. |
|
|
|
Britain annexes Aden. |
|
|
|
Chartist convention and petition in England. |
|
|
|
‘First Opium War’ between Britain and China. |
|
|
|
James Nasmyth designs steam hammer. |
|
|
|
Charles Goodyear vulcanizes rubber. |
|
1840 |
|
Dispute between France and the other powers over the |
|
|
|
Turkish–Egyptian settlement produces major European crisis. |
|
|
|
Napoleon’s ashes returned from St Helena and interred at the Invalides. |
|
|
|
Treaty of Waitangi confirms British sovereignty over New Zealand. |
|
|
|
Justus Liebig discovers elements of artificial fertilizer. |
|
|
|
Proudhon, What is Property? |
|
1841 |
|
Straits Convention restores Concert, settles Eastern Question. |
|
|
|
Friedrich List, National System of Political Economy. |
|
|
|
Ludwig Feuerbach, The Essence of Christianity. |
|
1842 |
|
Hong Kong ceded to Britain. |
|
|
|
British conquest of Assam and Burma begins. |
|
|
|
British driven out of Afghanistan. |
|
|
|
Tahiti made a French protectorate. |
|
|
|
Gogol, Dead Souls. |
|
1843 |
|
Legalization of export of machinery from Britain. |
|
|
|
France annexes Ivory Coast and Dahomey. |
|
|
|
Carlyle, Past and Present. |
|
1844 |
|
Revolt of Silesian weavers. |
|
|
|
Engels, Condition of the Working Classes in England. |
|
1845 |
|
Great Famine begins in Ireland. |
|
1846 |
|
Polish revolt in Galicia; Cracow annexed by Austria. |
|
|
|
Repeal of British Corn Laws. |
|
1847 |
|
Civil war in Switzerland. |
|
|
|
Discovery of gold in California. |
|
|
|
Economic crisis in Europe. |
|
|
|
Charlotte Brontë, Jane Eyre. |
|
|
|
Emily Brontë, Wuthering Heights. |
|
1847–8 |
|
Banquet campaign in France. |
|
1848 |
jan. |
Revolts in Sicily and Naples. |
|
|
feb.22-24 |
Revolution in Paris; proclamation of French |
|
|
|
Second Republic and universal male suffrage. |
|
|
mar. |
Uprisings in Munich, Vienna, Budapest, Venice, Cracow, Milan, Berlin. |
|
|
mar– apr. |
Hungarian independence declared. |
|
|
|
Abolition of serfdom in central Europe. |
|
|
apr. |
Chartist demonstration in London. |
|
|
may |
Frankfurt parliament meets. |
|
|
june 17 |
Rising in Prague crushed. |
|
|
jun 22–24 |
Insurrection in Paris crushed. |
|
|
july– aug. |
Northern Italy reconquered by Austrians. |
|
|
oct. 31 |
Vienna bombarded into surrender. |
|
|
dec. |
Emperor Ferdinand of Austria abdicates, is succeeded by Francis Joseph. |
|
|
dec. |
Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte elected President of French Republic. |
|
|
|
Marx and Engels, The Communist Manifesto. |
|
|
|
J. S. Mill, The Principles of Political Economy. |
|
1849 |
feb. |
Roman Republic proclaimed. |
|
|
july |
French troops suppress Roman Republic. |
|
|
aug. |
Hungarian nationalists defeated. |
|
|
aug. |
Austrians recapture Venice. |
|
|
|
Britain annexes Punjab. |
|
|
|
Courbet, A Burial at Ornans. |
|
1850 |
|
Cross-Channel telegraph cable. |
|
|
|
Millet, The Sower. |
|
|
|
Faraday makes public his theory of magnetism. |
|
1851 |
dec. |
Louis Napoleon Bonaparte’s coup d’état. |
|
|
|
Isaac Singer invents sewing machine. |
|
|
|
Discovery of gold in Australia. |
|
|
|
The Great Exhibition, London. |
|
1852 |
dec. |
Louis Napoleon Bonaparte proclaimed Emperor as Napoleon III. |
|
|
|
Burma becomes a province of India. |
|
|
|
Pereire brothers found Crédit Mobilier. |
|
|
|
Charles Dickens, Bleak House. |
|
|
|
Holman Hunt, The Light of the World. |
|
1853–6 |
|
Crimean War. |
|
1854 |
|
Abraham Gesner manufactures kerosene. |
|
|
|
Heinrich Goebel invents first electric light bulb. |
|
1856 |
|
Peace of Paris ends Crimean War, opens Italian Question. |
|
|
|
Henry Bessemer develops steel converter. |
|
|
|
William Henry Perkin makes synthetic mauve dye from naphtha. |
|
|
|
Indian Mutiny. |
|
|
|
Sinn Fein founded in Ireland. |
|
1857 |
|
Millet, The Gleaners. |
|
1858 |
july 20 |
Cavour and Napoleon III sign the agreement of Plombières, an alliance against Austria. |
|
|
|
Bernadette Soubirous experiences a vision of the Virgin Mary at Lourdes. |
|
1859 |
apr. 2 |
Austrian army invades Piedmont. |
|
|
may 3 |
France declares war on Austria. |
|
|
june |
Austrians defeated at Magenta and Solferino. |
|
|
july 11 |
Truce of Villafranca. |
|
|
|
French occupy Saigon. |
|
|
|
Charles Darwin, On the Origin of Species. |
|
|
|
First practical storage battery invented. |
|
1860 |
|
Sardinia-Piedmont annexes Lombardy and much of central Italy; France annexes Nice and Savoy. |
|
|
may |
Garibaldi and his ‘Thousand’ sail for Sicily. |
|
|
aug. 22 |
Garibaldi invades the Italian mainland. |
|
1861 |
|
Victor Emmanuel II assumes title of King of Italy. |
|
|
|
Emancipation of the serfs in Russia. |
|
|
|
Friedrich Siemens and Pierre and Emile Martin develop open-hearth process for making steel. |
|
1862 |
|
Bismarck appointed Minister-President of Prussia. |
|
|
|
Albert Memorial. |
|
|
|
Garnier, Opera house, Paris (completed 1875). |
|
1863 |
|
Revolt in Poland against Russian rule is suppressed. |
|
|
|
Salon des Refusés, Paris. |
|
|
|
Manet, Le Déjuner sur l’herbe. |
|
1863–65 |
|
Legal and local government reforms in Russia. |
|
1864 |
jan. |
Austria and Prussia go to war against Denmark over Schleswig-Holstein. |
|
|
oct. 30 |
Peace of Vienna; Denmark cedes Schleswig-Holstein to Austria and Prussia. |
|
|
|
Tolstoy, War and Peace. |
|
|
|
Newman, Apologia pro vita sua. |
|
|
|
Pius IX, Syllabus errorum. |
|
|
|
The First International, London. |
|
|
|
Pasteurization invented. |
|
1865 |
|
Transatlantic telegraph cable completed. |
|
|
|
Pierre Lallement builds first pedalled bicycle. |
|
1866 |
apr. |
War between Austria and Prussia. |
|
|
july 3 |
Prussia defeats Austria at the battle of Königgrätz (Sadowa). |
|
|
|
Peace of Prague (German Confederation abolished, |
|
|
|
Prussia greatly expanded, North German Confederation formed). |
|
|
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Venice ceded to Italy by Austria. |
|
|
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Invention of dynamite by Alfred Nobel. |
|
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Dostoevsky, Crime and Punishment. |
|
|
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Financial crisis in Britain. |
|
1867 |
|
Austro-Hungarian Compromise creates federal dual monarchy. |
|
|
|
British Second Reform Act widens suffrage to male householders. |
|
|
|
Collapse of the Crédit Mobilier. |
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|
|
Zola, Thérèse Raquin. |
|
|
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Manet, The Execution of the Emperor Maximilian. |
|
|
|
Ibsen, Peer Gynt. |
|
|
|
Karl Marx, Das Kapital, vol i. |
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1868 |
feb.28 |
Disraeli becomes Prime Minister for the first time. |
|
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dec. 9 |
Gladstone becomes Prime Minister for the first time. |
|
|
|
Discovery of Kimberley diamond deposits. |
|
|
|
Dostoevsky, The Idiot. |
|
1869 |
|
Opening of Suez Canal. |
|
|
|
Matthew Arnold, Culture and Anarchy. |
|
1869–70 |
|
‘Liberal empire’ in France. |
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1870 |
july 19 |
France declares war on Prussia. |
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aug. 19 |
French army besieged at Metz. |
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|
sept. 2 |
French defeated at Sedan; Napoleon III is taken prisoner. |
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sept. 4 |
Republic proclaimed in France. |
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sept. 20 |
Italian forces enter Rome. |
|
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Zénobe Gramme makes the first dynamo with ring armature. |
|
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|
Adolf von Bayer synthesizes the dye indigo. |
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1871–8 |
|
German Kulturkampf. |
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1871 |
jan. 18 |
William I of Prussia proclaimed German Emperor. |
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jan. 28 |
Paris capitulates. |
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mar. 18 |
Rising of the Paris Commune. |
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may 10 |
Peace of Frankfurt; France cedes Alsace and Lorraine to Germany. |
|
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may 28 |
End of the Paris Commune. |
|
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|
George Eliot, Middlemarch. |
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1873 |
|
Financial crisis in Europe, beginning in Vienna; Great |
|
|
|
Depression begins (lasting until 1896). |
|
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League of the Three Emperors (Germany, Austria, Russia). |
|
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First Impressionist Exhibition. |
|
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Constitution of French Third Republic. |
|
1875 |
|
Revolt in Bosnia-Herzegovina touches off Eastern Crisis. |
|
|
|
German Social Democratic Party founded. |
|
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Britain acquires majority shareholding in Suez Canal Company. |
|
1876 |
|
Queen Victoria proclaimed Empress of India. |
|
|
|
Alexander Graham Bell patents the telephone. |
|
|
|
First performance of Richard Wagner’s Der Ring des |
|
|
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Nibelungen at Bayreuth. |
|
|
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Thomas Edison invents the phonograph. |
|
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Renoir, Le Moulin de la Galette. |
|
|
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Brahms, Symphony No. 1. |
|
|
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Thomas Edison makes first electric filament lamp. |
|
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Sidney Thomas and Percy Gilchrist perfect ‘basic’ process for steel production. |
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Protective tariffs introduced in Germany. |
|
1877–8 |
|
War between Russia and Turkey. |
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1878 |
|
Congress of Berlin sorts out the Eastern Question (for the time being). |
|
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Anti-socialist law in Germany. |
|
|
|
Theodor Fontane, Before the Storm. |
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Degas, Dancer on the stage. |
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1879 |
|
Germany and Austria-Hungary sign the Dual Alliance. |
|
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First electric tram exhibited, at Berlin. |
|
1880–1 |
|
First Boer War brings recognition of Boer semi-independence. |
|
1881 |
mar. |
Assassination of Alexander II of Russia. |
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aug. |
Irish Land Act. |
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Tunis becomes a French protectorate. |
|
1881–6 |
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Welfare reforms in Germany. |
|
1882 |
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Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy form the Triple Alliance. |
|
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French occupy Hanoi. |
|
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British occupy Egypt and the Sudan. |
|
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Gottlieb Daimler builds petrol engine. |
|
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Wagner, Parsifal. |
|
1883 |
|
French invade Madagascar. |
|
|
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Nietzsche, Thus Spake Zarathustra. |
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Death of Wagner. |
|
1884 |
|
Russia begins to lose control of Bulgaria, causing serious Eastern crisis. |
|
|
|
Charles Parsons constructs first practical steam turbine. |
|
|
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Hiram Maxim devises recoil-operated machine gun. |
|
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Seurat, A Bathing-Place. |
|
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Sacconi, The Victor Emmanuel Monument, Rome (completed 1923). |
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Germany begins to found a colonial empire in Africa. |
|
1885 |
|
Congo Free State established under Leopold II of Belgium. |
|
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Gottlieb Daimler invents internal combustion engine. |
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|
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Carl Benz builds single-cylinder engine for car. |
|
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Discovery of gold in Transvaal. |
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Cézanne, Montagne Ste-Victoire. |
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Van Gogh, The Potato-Eaters. |
|
1886 |
|
British annex Upper Burma. |
|
1887 |
|
Germany and Russia conclude Reinsurance Treaty. |
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|
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British annex Zululand. |
|
|
|
‘Bloody Sunday’ in London. |
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|
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Boulangist crisis in France. |
|
|
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Cyanide process for extracting gold and silver. |
|
1888 |
|
North Borneo, Brunei, and Sarawak made British protectorates. |
|
|
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J. B. Dunlop invents pneumatic tyre |
|
|
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Strindberg, Miss Julie. |
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|
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William II becomes German Emperor. |
|
1889 |
|
Eiffel Tower opened. |
|
1890 |
|
Bismarck dismissed; Germany drops Reinsurance Treaty. |
|
|
|
Germans occupy Ruanda-Urundi. |
|
|
|
Britain cedes Heligoland to Germany in return for |
|
|
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Zanzibar and Pemba. |
|
|
|
Baring’s financial crisis in London. |
|
|
|
J. G. Frazer, The Golden Bough. |
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Ibsen, Hedda Gabler. |
|
1890–8 |
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Manhood suffrage introduced in Spain, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Norway. |
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1891 |
|
Pope Leo XIII issues the bull Rerum novarum on social issues. |
|
1892 |
|
Rudolf Diesel patents his eponymous engine. |
|
1893 |
jan. 13 |
Independent Labour Party founded in Britain. |
|
|
|
Alliance between France and Russia. |
|
|
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Tchaikovsky, Symphony No. 6 (Pathétique). |
|
1894 |
|
President Carnot of France assassinated. |
|
|
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Britain occupies Matabeleland. |
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|
|
Uganda made a British protectorate. |
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|
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Italy invades Ethiopia. |
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Togoland made a German protectorate. |
|
|
|
Alfred Dreyfus condemned for treason. |
|
1894–5 |
|
Sino-Japanese War; Russia leads tripartite European intervention to frustrate Japanese victory. |
|
1895 |
|
Louis and Auguste Lumière invent the cinematograph. |
|
|
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Guglielmo Marconi invents the wireless radio. |
|
|
|
Röntgen discovers X-rays. |
|
|
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Lumière brothers invent motion-picture camera and projector. |
|
|
|
Oscar Wilde, The Importance of being Earnest. |
|
|
|
Oscar Wilde sentenced to two years’ hard labour for sodomy. |
|
1895–8 |
|
Russia gains dominant political, military, and economic hold on Manchuria and North China. |
|
1896 |
|
Italian army defeated by Ethiopia at the battle of Adowa. |
|
1897 |
|
Anti-Semite Karl Lueger becomes mayor of Vienna. |
|
|
|
Spanish prime minister assassinated. |
|
|
|
Discovery of gold in the Yukon, Canada. |
|
|
|
Germany begins to build a major battle fleet. |
|
|
|
Germany touches off scramble for naval bases and other concessions in China. |
|
1898 |
|
july ‘Fashoda incident’––confrontation between Britain and France in the Sudan. |
|
|
|
Empress Elizabeth of Austria assassinated. |
|
|
|
War between the United States of America and Spain. |
|
|
|
Marie and Pierre Curie discover polonium and radium. |
|
1899 |
sept. 19 |
Dreyfus pardoned. |
|
|
oct. |
Second Boer War begins. |
|
|
|
Peace conference at The Hague establishes an international court of arbitration. |
|
|
|
Houston Stewart Chamberlain, The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century. |
|
|
|
Freud, The Interpretation of Dreams. |
|
1900 |
|
British Labour Party founded. |
|
|
|
King Umberto I of Italy assassinated. |
|
|
|
Boxer Rebellion in China. |
|
|
|
Russia occupies Manchuria. |
|
|
|
First flight of a Zeppelin airship. |
|
1901 |
|
Max Weber, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism. |
|
|
|
President McKinley of the USA assassinated by anarchist. |
|
|
|
Thomas Mann, Buddenbrooks. |
|
|
|
Completion of Trans-Siberian Railway. |
|
1902 |
|
Limited Anglo-Japanese Alliance signed. |
|
|
|
Lenin, What is to be Done? |
|
1903 |
|
King and Queen of Serbia assassinated. |
|
1904 |
8 Apr. |
Entente Cordiale between Britain and France. |
|
|
|
Russo-Japanese War begins. |
|
|
|
Chekhov, The Cherry Orchard. |
|
|
|
Otto Wagner, Post Office Savings Bank, Vienna (completed 1912). |
|
|
|
Gaudi, Casa Batlló, Barcelona. |
|
1905 |
jan. 22 |
‘Bloody Sunday’ in St Petersburg begins revolution in Russia. |
|
|
feb. |
First Moroccan Crisis. |
|
|
oct. 17 |
Nicholas II promises a constitution and an elected parliament. |
|
|
oct. |
Norway regains independence from Sweden. |
|
|
|
Schlieffen Plan. |
|
|
|
Group of German Expressionist artists known as ‘The Bridge’ founded. |
|
|
|
Einstein’s theory of relativity. |
|
1906 |
|
Constitution granted in Russia. |
|
1906 |
|
Launch of HMS Dreadnought. |
|
1907 |
|
Manhood suffrage in Austria. |
|
|
aug. |
Britain and Russia sign a convention. |
|
|
|
Picasso, Les Demoiselles d’Avignon. |
|
1908 |
|
Austria-Hungary annexes Bosnia-Herzegovina; Bosnian |
|
|
|
Crisis erupts. |
|
|
|
King and Crown Prince of Portugal assassinated. |
|
|
|
Fritz Haber introduces industrial process for synthesizing ammonia. |
|
|
|
Georges Sorel, Reflections on Violence. |
|
|
|
Braque, Houses at L’Estaque. |
|
|
|
Peter Behrens designs the AEG Turbine Factory, Berlin. |
|
1909 |
|
Louis Blériot flies across Channel in monoplane. |
|
|
|
Diaghilev opens his season of Ballets russes in Paris. |
|
1910 |
|
E. M. Forster, Howard’s End. |
|
1911 |
|
Assassination of the Russian prime minister Stolypin in Kiev. |
|
|
|
Italy goes to war with the Ottoman Empire, seizing Libya and the Dodecanese Islands. |
|
|
|
Second Moroccan Crisis. |
|
|
|
Group of German arists known as ‘The Blue Rider’ founded at Munich. |
|
|
|
Rutherford’s theory of atomic structure. |
|
1912 |
|
Russia promotes the Balkan League under its protection manhood suffrage in Italy. |
|
|
|
Social Democratic Party becomes the largest party in the German parliament. |
|
|
|
Spanish prime minister assassinated. |
|
|
|
Jung, The Theory of Psychoanalysis. |
|
1912–3 |
|
First and Second Balkan wars. |
|
1913 |
|
Freud, Totem and Taboo. |
|
|
|
Stravinsky, The Rite of Spring. |
|
|
|
Proust, Swann’s Way. |
|
1914 |
june 28 |
Assassination of the Archduke Franz Ferdinand at Sarajevo. |
|
|
july 24 |
Russia threatens war if Austria-Hungary attacks Serbia. |
|
|
july 25 |
Austria-Hungary mobilizes against Serbia. |
|
|
july 30 |
Russia begins general mobilization. |
|
|
aug. 1 |
Germany declares war on Russia. |
|
|
aug. 3 |
Germany declares war on France and invades Belgium. |
|
|
aug. 4 |
Britain declares war on Germany. |
|
|
aug. 5 |
Austria-Hungary declares war on Russia. |
|
|
aug. 25-30 |
German army commanded by Hindenburg routs invading Russian army at Tannenberg. |
|
|
sept. 5–14 |
German invasion of France is halted at the battle of the Marne. |
|
|
sept. 27 |
Russians invade Hungary. |
|
|
|
James Joyce, Dubliners. |
|
|
|
Walter Gropius, Model Factory at the Werkbund Exhibition, Cologne. |