2. OVERVIEW

Before presenting an overview of where we will be going, a few brief words to clarify some terminology utilized. We attempt to define new terms when first introduced. A glossary is also provided.

Meteoroids are extra-terrestrial particulate matter larger than molecular scale in size but smaller than the nucleus of a comet (i.e., less than several kilometers across). Although there are no precise limits, the size range extends from a few hundredths of a micrometer to tens or even hundreds of meters.

The term meteor describes the streak of light observed when a small extra-terrestrial object a meteoroid enters the atmosphere at high speed. Meteor applies to the results of the interaction of the meteoroid with the atmosphere and is extended to cover more than the light emanations (e.g., ionization).

Two classes of meteoroids can survive to reach the ground - the very large and the very small. The very large bodies can burn off or ablate mass decelerating to terminal velocity and leave a remnant to fall to the ground. The surviving body is termed a meteorite. The very small particles have a large radiating surface area relative to their mass and can undergo atmospheric heating without being vaporized. These are called micrometeorites. Before atmospheric entry they are termed micrometeoroids. The terms cosmic dust and meteoric dust include micrometeorites and other debris of meteoric origin found in the atmosphere, on the surface of the Earth or in deep sea sediments.

We begin our story with the history of the search for interstellar meteoroids, which is useful for specifying some key parameters of these bodies that allowed them to escape detection during a half-century of intensive search for their existence. Early reported measurements of what undoubtedly were cosmoid manifestations are cited. A controversy arose over the terrestrial influx of interplanetary meteoroids (distinct from interstellar meteoroids) during the early days of space flight. Measurements utilizing different types of sensors diverged by four or more orders of magnitude. As this was a critical issue for space vehicle survivability design, numerous experiments were conducted utilizing rocket probes and terrestrial satellites. The lower penetration results became the design criteria while the higher values were attributed to instrument artifact. In retrospect, the larger flux values were likely due to the very real, near invisible, illusive cosmoids. Note: The terms cosmoids, interstellar meteoroids and dark matter will be used interchangeably.

The first vehicles to transverse the asteroid belts, PIONEER 10 and 11 carried three meteoric measuring experiments. The three experiments yielded three meteoroid distributions, each contradicting the other two [Soberman et al. 1976]. We reprise here the salient points of our [Dubin & Soberman 1991] paper wherein we reported the discovery of cosmoids and showed all three sensors measured cosmoid manifestations, resolving the earlier concluded discrepancy [Soberman et al. 1976].

The next chapter is devoted to measured properties of dark matter and those that have been inferred from experimental data. Results from numerous space borne meteoroid investigations corroborate cosmoid existence and establish several properties. How their very existence had remained hidden across the entire electromagnetic spectrum until the introduction of space age technologies is a topic that will unfold throughout.

The size of interstellar meteoroids allows them to reach the Sun. Measurements unequivocally reveal matter streaming into the solar surface at or near escape velocity. Although values for spatial density and solar radial variation can, at present, only be crudely estimated, the order of magnitude solar influx (i.e., accretion rate) is shown by two independent methods to be 10^-10 solar masses per year.

As indicated at the outset, recognition of cosmoids prompts an entirely new view of astrophysics. We show that the influx of these interstellar meteoroids is a necessary condition for stars to shine. Cosmoid induced stellar fusion is detailed. As the Sun, the star we can study most closely, is used as the main sequence generic model, this new grasp of cosmoid induced fusion solves the solar neutrino controversy. This decades old controversy is one of the strongest illustrations of the failure of the prevalent standard model to depict how stars behave.

Zones of dust have been observed surrounding many nearby stars. The scattering of sunlight from the zone of dust that surrounds the Sun produces a glow known as the Zodiacal Light. Once a belt of aggregates and dust exists around a star, planets are an inevitable development. It is within this region of dust that accretion produces planet growth. The interaction of cosmoids with the outer atmospheres of several planets in the solar system has been extensively (albeit unknowingly) documented. The slow rotation of Venus helps demonstrate some effects caused by the dark matter influx.

As our home planet, Earth deserves and gets special attention. While several terrestrial manifestations of cosmoid influx are introduced in earlier chapters, here we cite many additional measurements and observations which definitely and in some cases, most likely result from dark matter accretion.

The rings surrounding the outer planets illustrate that the same physical principles producing the Zodiacal dust belt work on a lesser scale. Planets, like the Sun show atmospheric rotation that increases near the equator, illustrating the influence of unseen surrounding mass. The rings of Jupiter and Saturn are treated in greater detail. A comparison is made of the growth of these two planets. Dispersion of cosmoids near Jupiter gave rise to measurements of numerous dust streams. As this dispersion and redirection is a crucial phenomenon, it is treated in detail.

The symbiosis of the Sun (a typical star) and cosmoids is next detailed. Dust dispersed from these aggregates creates a belt around the star, which increases the cross-section for further capture of interstellar matter. Planets grow in orbits that are favored by dispersion and redirection of aggregates. This harmony was numerically set down in the sixteenth century. It is also observed in moons and rings of the outer planets.

From the solar system our attention turns to other stars. Beginning with the main sequence, we show that this is an evolutionary path on which solitary stars begin as low-mass infrared deuterium burning objects that grow through accretion to become blue white giants. The evolution of galaxies is next discussed and the model intuited by Edwin Hubble [1926] is lauded.

We will explore the validity of the big bang theory. "Big bang" was a term initially coined in derision. The theory that has captured the popular imagination resulted from Hubble's assumption that the observed photon redshift is a Doppler change [Hubble & Humason 1931]. In consequence, an expanding universe grew. It will be shown that Hubble was mistaken. Big Bang protagonists ignore the rules of physics to satisfy observation (e.g., inflation). To avoid the pitfall of big bang inflation for which there is no basis in physics, an "Ekpyrotic Universe" is hypothesized [Khoury et al. 2001]. This proves to be more bizarre than packaging the universe in a spot.

The redshift, in popular conception, is a measure of the distance and age of the object observed. Interaction with dark matter micro-particles results in photon energy degradation while forward scatter allows most photons to continue with less energy but direction unchanged. While largely correlated with distance, evidence shows many in-stances where the correlation fails [Arp 1966]. Lastly, thermal radiation from intergalactic dark matter (cosmic meteoroids) is shown to result in a microwave background radiation.