Biology Lesson: Traits and Inheritance

Biology 501, Summer 2007

Revised Lesson: August 13, 2007

Instructors: Dr. Ingrid Waldron

Jennifer Doherty

TA: Jennifer Tareila

Group Members:

Theresa Lewis-King, Candace Randolph, and Bill Wagenborg

Biology 501

Summer 2007

Revised Lesson: August 13, 2007

Instructors: Dr. Ingrid Waldron

Jennifer Doherty

TA: Jennifer Tareila

Group Members: Theresa Lewis-King, Candace Randolph, and Bill Wagenborg

Biology Lesson: Traits and Inheritance

Lesson Plan Overview:

Human beings pass particular characteristics from parent to offspring in an orderly process accomplished by means of their genetic codes, which are contained in the DNA of fertilized egg or sperm cells. Some characteristics will influence a student’s physical appearance and others will not. Some children will resemble their parents because of these inherited traits. However, even if children do not physically look like their parents, they still have inherited genetic characteristics from their parents.

Unit Objectives:

Students will learn:

• How characteristics are passed from parent to offspring.
• The difference between character traits that are expressed (phenotype), and character traits that are not expressed (genotype).
• How Biologist use a Punnett Square to make prediction about a person’s genotype

Why teach this Lesson?

School District of Philadelphia

7^th Grade Core Curriculum

Unit of Study: Cell, Heredity, and Classification

Objectives:

• Know that every organism has a set of genetic instructions that determine its inherited traits
• Describe how traits are inherited
• Explain how genes and alleles are related to genotype and phenotype
• Explain how probability can be used to predict possible genotypes in offspring

Pennsylvania Science Standards

PA Standard: Unifying Themes

• 3.1.7B: Describe the use of models as an application of scientific or technological concepts.
• 3.1.7C: Identify patterns as repeated processes or recurring elements in science and technology.

PA Standard: Inquiry and Design

• 3.2.7B: Apply process knowledge to make and interpret observations.

PA Standard: Biological Sciences

• 3.3.7A: Describe the similarities and differences that characterize diverse living things
• 3.3.7C: know that every organism has a set of genetic instructions that determine its inherited traits.

(School District of Philadelphia. Science Core Curriculum, 2004)

Background For Teachers

Heredity and Inherited Traits Lesson

Theresa Lewis-King, Candace Randolph, and William Wagenborg

The process of instruction involving an organism’s inherited traits should attempt to make clearer to students why some children resemble their parents and others do not. In this lesson, recognizing vocabulary is important, however being able to understand the processes and roles involved is the main goal. This information should be used to help students understand:

• How traits from their parents are passed to offspring
• How some traits determine their physical appearance
• How they possess some traits that are not visible.
• How genetic traits can be identified and predicted using a Punnett Square

It is also important to recognize that although this information is being applied to human beings, it is also true for plants and other animals (Cummings, 2006). Human beings, like all living things, inherit their characteristics from their parents. These traits are passed on through a process that starts with meiosis in each parent and finishes with fertilization of a mother’s egg from a father’s sperm. The human’s individual characteristics and makeup depend on the variation of the gene that he or she receives from each parent. (Cummings, 2006)

As discussed in meiosis, the human gametes, sperm cells in males and egg cells in females, each contain twenty-three chromosomes. When the sperm and egg cell join in fertilization, a zygote containing forty-six chromosomes, twenty-three from the mother and twenty-from the father, is produced. These chromosomes contain genes that provide the ‘blueprint’ for the developing embryo. The embryo has a pair of genes, one from each parent, which is responsible for specific characteristics. Each gene may contain different alleles, alternative versions of the same gene, for a particular characteristic. For example, an allele for the eye color gene might code for brown eyes, blue eyes, or hazel eyes. The trait that the infant will have when born is determined by the specific combination of alleles that it received from its parents (Oxford University Press, 2004).

In this lesson, we focus on two important classifications of gene alleles that determine a human’s biological and physical makeup, dominant or recessive. Dominant alleles code for proteins that perform specific functions in the cell and recessive alleles code for proteins that are either non-functioning or have little effect on the cell (Oxford University Press, 2004). For example, the gene that codes for a protein that produces the pigment melanin that affects skin color on chromosome 11 could have two alleles, the allele for the normal production of melanin (skin color), and the allele for non-production of melanin. The normal producing melanin allele is considered a dominant allele because it codes for a protein to produce the pigment for melanin. The non-melanin producing allele is considered recessive because it codes for a protein that does not produce the pigment for melanin. A dominant allele is expressed in humans when both the paternal and maternal alleles of his/her gene are dominant or if one of the alleles is the dominant and the other is recessive. If both the mother and father’ gamete or one of their gametes provide the allele for the normal producing melanin, the child will have normal skin color. Consequently, the recessive allele is expressed in a human when both the paternal and maternal alleles are recessive. The mother and the father’s gametes would both provide the allele for non-producing melanin and thus would result in albinism (white skin color and hair) in the child Cummings, 2006).

This link provides a list of common dominant and recessive traits in human being

http://www.blinn.edu/socialscience/LDThomas/Feldman/Handouts/0203hand.htm

(Thomas, 2007).

An organism is homozygous for a trait when they possess two of the same allele, one maternal and one paternal, for a gene. This is true when both alleles are either dominant or recessive. An organism is heterozygous for a trait when they possess a dominant and a recessive allele for the same gene, in which case the dominant trait will be the expressed trait. If an organism is heterozygous, they will still have two copies of a gene, they are carriers of a recessive gene, even though it is not expressed. In this way a parent could pass along a trait to their child without it ever becoming apparent. This is important to the understanding of how disorders, such as Sickle Cell Anemia, can occur in a child after it has been carried and passed from previous generations without affecting them. (Oxford University Press, 2004)

Knowing the genetic make-up of the parents allows us to make prediction about the possible genetic makeup of the offspring. Using a table called a Punnett Square, it is possible to predict the possible character traits of the offspring. In order to identify and predict genetic traits, each gene is assigned a letter. If the allele for that gene is dominant, an uppercase letter is written. If the allele is recessive, then a lower case letter is written. For example, the melanin producing allele would be labeled “A” because it is dominant and the non-melanin producing allele would be labeled “a” because it is recessive. The grid, developed by R.C.Punnett, is constructed based on the number of all possible combinations of paternal and maternal alleles for particular genes. Generally, a parent only has two alleles for any one gene. To determine the number of square grids needed to compute the Punnett Square, multiply the number of possible egg genotypes by the number of possible sperm genotypes. For the purposes of this lesson, we are focusing on alleles of one gene, two alleles from each parent. Thus the grid will be 2 x 2 or 4 squares. Although it does not have an effect on the outcomes, consistency in the placing of the maternal and paternal alleles on the grid may help students’ organization. The paternal alleles for example, are always listed horizontally on the grid, one above each block and the alleles of the maternal gene are always listed on the grid vertically, one next to each block. The paternal and maternal alleles are then put into pairs of two based on their location on the grid (Oxford University Press, 2004) (Friedman, 2004).

Below is an example of the use of A Punnett Square in predicting albinism in children.

Mother Aa (heterozygous gene-dominant- normal melanin production- she has normal

skin color, but is an albinism carrier)

Father Aa (heterozygous gene- dominant – normal melanin production- he has normal

skin color, but is an albinism carrier)

A a

AA Melanin produced	Aa Melanin produced
Aa Melanin produced	aa no melanin produced-albinism

A

a

This Punnett Square shows that each child has a 75% chance of normal skin color because three of the four quadrants show that the dominant trait would be expressed (AA, Aa and Aa). This Punnett Square also shows that each child has a 25 % chance of having albinism because one of the four quadrants shows that the recessive trait would be expressed (aa). The Punnett Square can be used for all allele pairs for all genes. It is not meant to be an exact calculation of what the individual offspring of these parents will be, but rather an expression of possibilities because it represents an exact calculation of probability. All of the children born to these two parents have the same probability of inheriting normal skin color and albinism because each pregnancy is an independent occurrence and the probability remains the same. This illustrates a very important concept that is a key to understanding heredity: there are traits that may appear in a child that do not appear in either of his/he parents or his/her siblings. (Friedman, 2004)

The genetic makeup of a human is the genotype based on the alleles that he/she obtains from his/her parents. The phenotype is the expression of the genotype modulated by the environment (Oxford University Press, 2004). The genotype is an organism’s genetic make up. Specifically, it is the complete set of genetic information in every body cell of the organism. This genetic representation is inscribed in every human’s DNA and is replicated throughout the body. It is the listing of possible alleles for genes inherited from the mother and father that allow us to use a Punnett Square to predict the possible genetic makeup of the offspring. The phenotype is the observable characteristics of any organism that are determined by its genotype combination of alleles. These traits determine a human’s physical appearance, hair color, eye color, height, skin tone, etc. Along with genotype, the interaction a human has with the environment can play a crucial role in determining a person’s phenotype. Factors such as diet, geography, (surroundings and climate) and physical activities can change or alter someone’s phenotype. For example, Phenylketonuria (PKU) is a recessive disorder associated with the bodies’ inability to metabolize an essential amino acid, phenylalanine. In Infants who are homozygous for PKU, phenylalanine builds up to toxic levels in their cells and causes severe mental retardation and other developmental problems. If the infant is given a restricted diet low in phenylalanine and maintain this diet throughout life, then the toxic affects of phenylalanine is reduced in the cell and some developmental delays can be avoided. This shows how the environment can affect a human’s phenotype (Snustad, 1997).

The Human Genome Project, completed in 2003 funded by the U.S. Department of Energy and the National Institutes of Health, is a way for the science world to examine human DNA and identify the estimated 30,000 genes that are present. This research will be used for a variety of reasons that include: understanding the different functions of DNA, shedding light on different genetic diseases and providing more of a basis for human identification through DNA samples that can used in such things as criminal cases. The project itself is finished, but the analysis of data will go on for some time. As more is learned from the data, a better sense of human genotype will be developed. (HGMIS, 2006)

Although we may understand a lot about human traits and inheritance, there is still more to be discovered. Students need to be aware that learning about heredity, like all of things in science, is an ongoing process. Many of their questions may be answered, but many more may arise.

Grade Level 7 Science: Traits and Inheritance

Approximate Class Time: Five Class Periods (45 minute periods)

Big Idea: Why do some children resemble their parents more than others?

Lesson Structure:

The School District of Philadelphia uses the Benchmarks for Science Literacy developed by the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) and the National Science Education Standards developed by the National Research Council to provide teachers a framework for science instructions. The overall goal is to provide students with an opportunity to fully engage in the learning process by asking questions, making predictions, conducting experiments and investigations, analyzing data, using technology, communicating using acceptable scientific language.

This lesson will follow the Science of Philadelphia K-8 Instructional Model. (The School District of Philadelphia, 2004):

· Engage

· Explore

· Explain

· Extend

· Evaluate

Student Background Knowledge

• Students should be familiar with how a scientists conducts an investigations; including asking questions, posing hypothesis, designing experiments, collecting and analyzing data, and communicating results.
• Students should have a basic understanding of the function and structure of cells in the human body, including the key role that DNA plays in giving instructions to the cell.
• Students should understand how cells divide through the process of mitosis. They should also know how sperm and egg cells (gametes) are kformed through the process of meiosis.

Lesson#1:

Misconceptions: Students may think that if they look more like one parent, then they have more of that parent’s genes. Students sometimes believe that they have inherited traits from only one parent or the other. (Holt, et. al, 2005) It is important that the teacher is aware of what students already know because research on how students learn stress the importance of identifying the concepts that students bring with them into the classroom. When confronted with new information, it is believed that students will either; 1.) Totally delete prior knowledge in favor of new information, 2.) Modify or change the prior knowledge so it is in line with the new information, 3.) Modify or change the new information so it is in line with the prior knowledge, 4.) Totally reject the new information. (Sewell, 2002)

Engage: During this part of the lesson, the teacher should raise questions that will hopefully get students interested in the topic of study. This part of the lesson will also give the teacher an idea of what students already know, and also insight into misconceptions that might interfere with students learning new concepts.

Warm-up Activity

Teacher: Record responses on chart paper and put the student’s name beside their idea. Look for possible themes that can be grouped together, this will indicated general areas of misconceptions. At the end of the unit, it is important to revisit these responses with students to determine if and how any of their original ideas have changed.

Teacher asks:

• What determines how you look, i.e. your hair color, skin color, eye color?
• Why do the same parents (same mother and father) have children that look different?
• Why do some children look just like one parent or the other? Why do some children look like both parents? Why do some children look like neither parent?

Group Activity: Clothing Combos

1. Label three bags: hats, scarves, and gloves (these represent three genes for specific character traits that children can inherit from parents).
2. Put five different hats, scarves, and gloves in their respective bag, for example; red, green, blue, yellow, orange (these represent the different alleles, alternative versions, for the genes for specific character traits children inherit from parents)
3. Without looking have students select one item from each bag, do this in groups of five and return items to the bag after each child records their choice.
4. Students record their outfit.

Teacher: Make a Class Chart, record student combinations

Wrap-up questions:

• Were any two outfits the same?
• Did we see all possible combinations?
• Even with the same available choices (same parents), why did you we get such variation in outfits?

Journal Reflections: (children can share reflections if time permits)

• Have students explain how they think the process of selecting different objects from the bag without looking might be like parents passing traits to their children.
• Why was it important to return the items to the bag after each student selected?

Lesson #2: Teacher Directed Lesson

Explain: This part of the lesson is a formal introduction of key concepts and vocabulary that students will need to understand and achieve the learning outcomes stated in the lesson objectives. Students should have an opportunity to ask questions for clarification, explain concepts in their own words, and do additional research.

Teacher: Whole-Group Lesson

• You have already learned that through the process of meiosis, human gametes, sperm cells in males and egg cells in females are formed. Each gamete, egg and sperm cell, contains twenty-three chromosomes.
• When sperm and egg cells join in fertilization, a zygote containing forty-six chromosomes, twenty-three from the mother and twenty-three from the father, is produced. These chromosomes contain the information (genes) that provides the “blueprint” for the developing embryo.
• Each gene may contain different alleles, alternative versions of the same gene, for a particular characteristic. For example, an allele for the eye color gene might code for brown eyes, blue eyes, or hazel eyes.
• The genetic makeup of a human is determined by the specific combination of alleles that it received from its parents, one from the mother, and one from the father.
• The genetic makeup of a human is the genotype based on the alleles that he/she obtains from his/her parents. The genotype is the complete set of genetic information in every body cell of the organism. This genetic representation is inscribed in every human’s DNA and is replicated throughout the body.
• The phenotype is the expression of the genotype. The phenotype is the observable characteristics of any organism that are determined by its genotype combination of alleles. These traits determine a human’s physical appearance, hair color, eye color, height, skin tone, etc.
• A Dominant gene describes the allele that is expressed in the phenotype when two different alleles of a gene are present in the cells of an organism. This will determine what an individual will look like.
• A Recessive gene describes the allele that is not expressed in the phenotype when two different alleles are present in the cells of an organism. Although these characteristics are not expressed, the individual still carries these traits.

Unit Vocabulary:

Teacher: Introduce and discuss key vocabulary terms, give students examples where appropriate and allow times for students to add words to science journal.

*Student should create and maintain a science journal that contains key vocabulary and concepts in words, pictures, diagrams, and formulas.

1. Inheritance: the transmission of particular characteristics from generation to generation by means of the genetic code, which is transferred to offspring.
2. Traits: Any detectable phenotypic property of an organism, a character.
3. Phenotype: The observable characteristics of an organism.
4. Genotype: The genetic composition of an organism, the combination of alleles it posses.
5. Gene: A unit of heredity composed of DNA. A gene is visualized as a discrete particle, forming part of a chromosome that determines a particular characteristic. A gene occupies a specific position on a chromosome. In molecular genetics, it may be defined as the sequence of nucleotides of DNA and RNA concerned with a specific function.
6. Allele: One of the alternative forms of a gene. In a diploid cell there are usually two alleles (one from each parent), which occupy the same relative position on homologous chromosomes. Within a population there may be numerous alleles of a gene, each has a unique nucleotide sequence.
7. Dominant: (in genetics) Describes the allele that is expressed in the phenotype when two different alleles of a gene are present in the cells of an organism.
8. Recessive: The allele that is not expressed in the phenotype when two different alleles are present in the cells of an organism.
9. Homozygous: Describing an organism or cell in which the alleles at a given locus on homologous chromosomes are identical (they may be either dominant or recessive).
10. Heterozygous: Describing an organism or cell in which the alleles at a given locus on homologous chromosomes are different.

Wrap up: Homework Assignment:

1. Assign Reading: (School District of Philadelphia Core Curriculum recommendations)
• You and Your Genes, National Geographic Reading Expedition
• Uncovering the Structure of DNA, National Geographic Reading Expedition

Lesson #3 and #4: Hands-on Lab Traits and Inheritance

Engage:

Teacher states: Many times children and adults wonder why they do or do not resemble their parents. As you have learned, you inherit genes from your parents that determine specific characteristics such as their complexion, hair texture, and the structure of your nose, eye color, and many more numerous characteristics.

Where are your genes located in your body?

Student should make the connection that genes are part of DNA molecules and DNA molecules are contained in the chromosomes located in the nucleus of the cell.

How does a child inherit genes from his or her mother and father?

Students should be able to explain the process of meiosis, how a child gets twenty-three chromosomes from the mother and twenty-three chromosomes from the father.

In today’s lab, we will consider a very common characteristic in people, cheek dimples.

Explore: Allow students to work together in groups to generate and test ideas that they may have concerning the topic of study.

Explain: Students should be able to “show” what they know. This is the part of the lesson that gives students an opportunity to do a hands on lab designed to increase their understanding of key concepts.

Activity One:

Cheek Dimples are a very common characteristic in people. One allele for the gene that codes for cheek dimples is given the symbol “D”. The other allele that codes for no dimples is given the symbol “d”. A person that has cheek dimples will have a genotype of either DD (homozygous) or Dd (heterozygous). Both of these combinations of alleles will result in a child with dimples.

Why will both of these combinations produce a child with dimples?

A person without cheek dimples will have a genotype for dd (homozygous).

Why will this combination result in a child that has no dimples?

Biologists use a Punnett Square to help show the possible genetic combinations of zygotes. The alleles for each parent must be crossed with the other. For the purposes of this lesson, we are focusing on alleles of one gene, two alleles from each parent. Thus the grid will be 2 x 2 or 4 squares. The paternal alleles are listed horizontally on the grid, one above each block and the alleles of the maternal gene are listed on the grid vertically, one next to each block. The paternal and maternal alleles are then put into pairs of two based on their location on the grid (Oxford University Press, 2004) (Friedman, 2004).

1. Complete the Punnett Square below for both parents who have the genotype DD (homozygous).

Father (sperm)

Mother (egg)

	D	D
D
D

Each square that you crossed represents a possible offspring’s genotype.

How many have the genotype…

DD _____

Dd _____

dd _____

What fraction of them is? DD _____, Dd ________, dd _________

How many of these offspring will have dimples? Why?

Given the parent’s genotype, will any of the offspring have no dimples? Why?

In the above example, both parents have the same allele for the gene that codes for cheek dimples, however there are other combination of gene alleles that parents can possess.

What are some other possible combinations that two parents could have?

Let examine another possible parent combination.

2. Complete the Punnett Square below for both parents who have the genotype Dd (heterozygous)

Father (sperm)

Mother (egg)

	D	d
D
d

Each square that you crossed represents a possible offspring’s genotype.

How many have the genotype……

DD _____

Dd _____

dd _____

What fraction of them is? DD _____, Dd ________, dd _________

How many of these offspring will have dimples? ______.

What are their genotypes? ________, _________.

How many of these offspring will not have dimples? ______.

What are their genotypes? _________.

Given the parent’s genotype, will any of the offspring have no dimples? Why?

Extend: Allow students to use what they have just learned. They can apply this information to an example that they make themselves.

3. Complete the Punnett Square below for a parent with another combination of alleles.

Father (sperm)

Mother (egg)

Each square that you crossed represents a possible offspring’s genotype.

How many have the genotype……

DD _____

Dd _____

dd _____

What fraction of them is? DD _____, Dd ________, dd _________

How many of these offspring will have dimples? ______.

What are their genotypes? ________, _________.

How many of these offspring will not have dimples? ______.

What are their genotypes? _________.

Write the phenotypes (will the child have dimples or no dimples?) for each set of alleles, and draw a picture to represent it.

DD Dd dd

_______________ _______________ _______________

Explain how two individuals with the same phenotype can have different genotypes?

Activity Two:

Genotype Probability

Because children receive half of their genetic makeup from each parent, biologist can use their understanding of probability to predict the possible outcomes of a child’s genotype and therefore their phenotype. However, random variation in which sperm will fertilize which egg may produce very different results from the predicted outcome.

What can be done to control for random variation?

The Punnett Square below illustrates the possible combinations of genotypes when both parents are heterozygous for cheek dimples, “Dd”.

Father (sperm)

Mother (egg)

	D	d
D	DD	Dd
d	Dd	dd

What fraction of this couple’s children will have a genotype of “DD”? __________

What fraction of this couple’s children will have a genotype of “Dd”? __________

What fraction of this couple’s children will have a genotype of “dd”? __________

The fraction of different genotypes can be expressed in the ratio, 1:2:1.

What is the probability (change the fractions to percents) of the following outcomes?

DD ________

Dd _________

dd ________

Explore: Allow students to work together in groups to generate and test ideas that they may have concerning the topic of study.

In this activity, we will use a two-side coin to help simulate the random assortment of gene alleles. There is a 50-50 chance that egg or sperm cell will have the “D” or “d” allele.

1. Separate the class into “fathers” and “mothers”
2. Give each student a two-side coin or chip. The heads will represent the dominant allele D” for cheeks dimples and the tail will represent the recessive allele for no cheek dimples “d”.
3. Students should find someone to a mate. (You may have to assign partners if necessary)
4. Each pair of student will produce four offspring by tossing their coin and recording the genotype and phenotype of their zygote. (toss the coin four different times.
5. How many zygotes with genotype “DD”, “Dd”, and “dd” were produced? What were the phenotypes of these offspring?
6. Did your results match the prediction from the Punnett Square?
7. What can be done to get results that are closer to the predicted outcome? (Students should suggest repeating this activity more times or getting a larger sample)
8. Allow students to repeat this activity again, this time making four different sets of four offspring. Record information in the following chart.

	DD	Dd	dd
First four offspring
Second four offspring
Third four offspring
Fourth four offspring
Total
	/16	/16	/16
Predicted fractions from Punnett Square

9. Are you fractions closer to the predicted outcome on the Punnett Square? (Teacher could combine group data to make the class chart, does this improve the probability of matching predicted outcome?)

Wrap-up Hands-on Lab

· Students complete activity sheets and discuss their results in-group.

• Teacher-directed discussion will makes connections to reinforce the key concepts.
• Review Lab sheets with students

Lesson adapted from: North Central Regional Technology in Education Consortium.

Genetics, Dr. Scott Poethig, Dr. Ingrid Waldron, and Jennifer Doherty, Department of Biology, University of Pennsylvania.

Lesson #5

Evaluate: Evaluation of student learning is an ongoing process during these lessons. The teacher will have numerous opportunities to listen and observe students as they talk and interact with each other. There will also be formal assessment that will provide feedback for the students to heal them monitor their own learning.

Formal Assessment:

• Teacher checks/grades activity sheets, gives students direct feedback

• Extension Question: If a homozygous dimple (DD) crosses with a heterozygous dimpled (Dd) and they have eight children, what is the probability an offspring will be heterozygous dimpled (Dd)? Draw a Punnett Squares and show calculations below.
• Personal Analysis: Using the terms dominant, recessive, alleles, homozygous and heterozygous explain why you may or may not resemble your parents.

References

1. A Dictionary of Biology. Oxford University Press, 2004. Oxford Reference

Online. Oxford University Press.  University of Pennsylvania.  7 July 2007  http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Main&entry=t6.e147

2. Confrey, Jere. A Review of the Research on Student Conceptions in Mathematics, Science, and Programming, by Review of Research in Education © 1990 American Educational Research Association

3. Cummings. Michael R. (2006) Transmission of genes from generation to generation. Human heredity: Principles and issues (7th edition)

Australia:Thomson/Brooks/Cole.

4. Felix de la Cruz, "Phenylketonuria", in AccessScience@McGraw-Hill, http://proxy.library.upenn.edu:2805, DOI 10.1036/1097-8542.506900, last modified: July 12, 2002.

5. Friedman, Thomas B., Drayna, Dennis “Mendelian Genetics" Encyclopedia of

Evolution. Ed. Mark Pagel. Oxford University Press 2003. 

University of Pennsylvania.  11 July 2007 <http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Main&entry=t169.e267>

6. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 2005. Cells, Heredity, and Classification. Holt, Rinehart and Winston. Austin. TX.

7. Human Genome Management Information System (HGMIS) (2006)

Human genome project information.

Retrieved July 14, 2007 from

www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/home.shtml.

8. M. Suzanne Donovan and John D. Bransford, Editors 2007. How Students Learn

History, Mathematics, And Science In The Classroom. National Research Council

the National Academies. The National Academies Press. Washington, D.C.

9. North Central Regional Technology in Education Consortium 2005. http://www.ncrtec.org/tl/camp/gene/gene6.htm

10. Poethig, Scott, Waldron, Ingrid, and Doherty, Jennifer. 2006. Genetics. Department of Biology, University of Pennsylvania.

11. School District of Philadelphia. Core Curriculum, 2004. Songhai Press, Philadelphia, PA.

12. Sewell, Audrey. Constructivism and Student Misconceptions, Why Every Teacher Needs to Know About Them. Australian Science Teachers’ Journal, v48 n4, p.24-28. Dec. 2002.
13. Snustad, D., Peter, Simmons, Michael J., Jenkins, John B. (1997)

Extensions of mendelism Principles of genetics. New York: John Wiley& Sons

14. Thomas, Larry D. Dominant and recessive traits. Blinn College Psychology Professor Retrieved July 7, 2007 http://www.blinn.edu/socialscience/LDThomas/Feldman/Handouts/0203hand.htm