We present results of measurements of cosmogenic 10Be, 26Al and 36Cl, and the indigenous (intrinsic) concentrations of the stable elements Be, Al and Cl in 120–200 kyr old corals from Barbados and Puerto Rico. The concentration levels of these radionuclides in the corals lie in the range 104 to 108 atoms/g. A comparison of the measured nuclide concentrations with those expected to be produced in the corals by nuclear interactions of energetic cosmic radiation shows that (i) the radionuclides 26Al and 36Cl are derived from in situ cosmic ray interactions in the corals after their formation, but that (ii) the radionuclide 10Be owes its provenance in the coralline lattice primarily due to incorporation of dissolved beryllium in seawater in the lattice structure of the corals.

Complimenting modern records of tropical cyclone activity with longer historical and paleoclimatological records would increase our understanding of natural tropical cyclone variability on decadal to centennial time scales. Tropical cyclones produce large amounts of precipitation with significantly lower δ18O values than normal precipitation, and hence may be geochemically identifiable as negative δ18O anomalies in marine carbonate δ18O records. This study investigates the usefulness of coral skeletal δ18O as a means of reconstructing past tropical cyclone events. Isotopic modeling of rainfall mixing with seawater shows that detecting an isotopic signal from a tropical cyclone in a coral requires a salinity of ~33 psu at the time of coral growth, but this threshold is dependent on the isotopic composition of both fresh and saline end-members. A comparison between coral δ18O and historical records of tropical cyclone activity, river discharge, and precipitation from multiple sites in Puerto Rico shows that tropical cyclones are not distinguishable in the coral record from normal rainfall using this approach at these sites.

Annually resolved coral d18O and Sr/Ca records from southwestern Puerto Rico are used to investigate Caribbean climate variability between 1751 and 2004 C.E. Mean surface ocean temperatures in this region have increased steadily by about 2
C since the year 1751, with Sr/Ca data indicating 2.1 ± 0.8
C and d18O data indicating 2.7 ± 0.5
C. Coral geochemical records from across the tropics demonstrate that regional variability is important for understanding climate variations at centennial time scales. A strong multidecadal salinity signal in the oxygen isotope data correlates with observed multidecadal temperature variations in the Northern Hemisphere. Instrumental wind and precipitation data indicate that the most recent coral isotopic variations are caused by expansion and contraction of the steep regional salinity gradient, forced by trade wind anomalies through meridional Ekman transport. The timing of the fluctuations suggests that the multidecadal-scale wind and surface circulation anomalies might play a role in Atlantic temperature variability and meridional overturning circulation, but further work is needed to confirm this suggestion.

Data from 29 streamflow-gaging stations, including 9 stations with daily suspended-sediment concentration, and data from 24 water-quality stations were compiled and analyzed to investigate the potential effects of river sediment and nutrient discharges on the coral reefs of Puerto Rico. The largely mountainous watersheds of the 8,711-square-kilometer island of Puerto Rico are small, channel gradients are steep, stream valleys tend to be well-incised and narrow, and major storms tend to be intense but brief; hence flooding is rapid with peak discharges several orders of magnitude above base discharge, and flood waters recede quickly. Storm runoff transports a substantial part of fluvial suspended sediment from uplands to the coast, as indicated by sediment data from a set of nine streamflow-gaging stations representative of runoff from watersheds considered typical of conditions in Puerto Rico. For example, the highest recorded daily sediment discharge is 1 to 3.6 times the annual suspended-sediment discharge, and runoff from major storms induces sediment transport 1 to 32 times the median annual sediment load. Precipitation associated with Hurricane Georges in September 1998 is estimated to have averaged 300 millimeters across the island, which is equivalent to a volume of about 2.6 billion cubic meters. Analysis of runoff and sediment yield from Hurricane Georges indicates that more than 1.0 billion cubic meters of water and at least 2.4 million metric tonnes of sediment (and as much as 5 to 10 million metric tonnes), were discharged to the coast and shelf as a result of this major storm. Because of their relatively small size, dams and reservoirs of Puerto Rico have relatively little effect on total discharge of water and sediment to the coastal marine waters during major storms. The presence of reservoirs, however, may be detrimental to coral reefs for two reasons: (1) coarse sediments deposited in the reservoir can be replaced by finer sediments scoured, if available, from the river channels and flood plains below the dam; and (2) the loads of phosphorus and ammonia reaching the coastal waters may increase as organic matter decomposes in the anoxic bottom waters of the reservoir. Rainfall, water discharge, sediment discharge, and sediment yield vary across the island. Mean annual runoff for the island is estimated to be 910 millimeters, about 57 percent of mean annual precipitation (1,600 millimeters). Mean annual suspended-sediment discharge from Puerto Rico into surrounding coastal waters is estimated to range from 2.7 to 9.0 million metric tonnes. Hydrologic and sediment data associated with Hurricane Georges indicate that sediment yield is generally proportional to the depth of storm runoff. Discharge and sediment-concentration data indicate that during this storm, river water and sediment that discharged into the marine environment generally formed hypopycnal plumes (buoyant suspension layers). Generally, hyperpycnal (density) plumes can develop in areas with high discharges and sediment concentrations. Both hypopycnal and hyperpycnal plumes distribute suspended sediment over broad areas of the Puerto Rico shelf and shelf slope. Comparison of long-term suspended-sediment discharge and watershed characteristics for Puerto Rico with those of other river systems around the world indicates that Puerto Rico rivers are similar to temperate and tropical upland river systems.