Undergrad term paper guide

GUIDE FOR UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH PAPERS

The paper should be a serious research project in which you (1) survey the available information on a subject, (2) read recent research on it, and (3) study certain problems or questions within it. The paper should be based principally on primary sources in the Bible and other ancient texts, and these should be cited to back up whatever statements you make about a subject. Use secondary sources to help you find the primary sources as well as to see how scholars interpret the primary sources, what additional information they bring to bear on the subject, and how they deal with the issues you are studying.

Begin the paper with a clear definition of the question or problem you are studying, the factual information available about it, and an introductory survey of scholarly work on it. Then proceed to describe the issues involved and, if possible, to answer the question that interests you. Compare different views on the subject. Evaluate authors' assumptions, their selection of evidence, and the coherence of their arguments.

Remember that a research paper is not simply a collection of quotations (attributed or unattributed) from others. Nor is it an encyclopedia-style narrative of information. It is a combination of facts, questions, and reasoned interpretation. A large mass of information is not very meaningful until you begin to ask questions about it. Information organized as answers to questions is meaningful. Keep in mind that you do not begin with a thesis. Although in the final, written form of you paper you may present the thesis first so that readers know where you are leading them and follow your argument, in preparing the paper the thesis can only emerge after you examine the evidence.

Suggestions for Hebrew-based papers may be found in "Guide to Biblical Research" on my website: http://www.sas.upenn.edu/~jtigay/guide.html.

Procedure:

If you have never done so before, start by reading a manual on writing term papers, such as: R. H. Markman and M. L. Waddell, 10 STEPS IN WRITING THE RESEARCH PAPER; D. J. Mulkerne and G. Kahn, THE TERM PAPER: STEP BY STEP; K. L. Turabian, STUDENTS' GUIDE FOR WRITING COLLEGE PAPERS.

Make an appointment to see me to discuss possible topics and bibliography. Start work on the paper early in case library books have to be recalled, searched for, or ordered through Interlibrary Loan.

A typed prospectus of your paper is required before you begin to write it. The due date is on the syllabus (no extensions). The prospectus should be no longer than two pages. It should state briefly the general subject and the specific problem or question you plan to deal with and indicate how you plan to go about solving the problem or question. It should include a bibliography listing the most important literature on the subject. The prospectus is not an initial proposal but a statement of work in progress. You will have to do a considerable amount of reading and thinking before you see the subject clearly enough to write the prospectus. I will sign the prospectus and return it to you with my comments and suggestions; save it and return it to me when you hand in the paper. If you later change the topic significantly, you should submit a new prospectus. No paper will be accepted unless it is accompanied by the signed prospectus.

For introductory material on many subjects use the following works:

ENCYCLOPAEDIA JUDAICA (16 volumes; in JANES and Ref: DS/102.8/E52 and E53) (abbreviated EJ)
THE INTERPRETER'S DICTIONARY OF THE BIBLE (4 volumes plus supplementary volume; in JANES and Ref: BS/440/I63) (abbreviated IDB)
THEOLOGICAL DICTIONARY OF THE OLD TESTAMENT (11 volumes to date; in JANES: BS/440/B5713) (abbreviated TDOT)
ANCHOR BIBLE DICTIONARY. 6 vols. 1992 (Ref. BS440.A54 1992) (abbreviated ABD)
THEOLOGICAL LEXICON OF THE OLD TESTAMENT. 3 vols (Ref. BS440 .T4813 1997, abbreviated TLOT)
CIVILIZATIONS OF THE ANCIENT NEAR EAST (4 vols.; in Ref; University Museum Library Ref, and CAJS: DS57.C55 1995)(abbreviated CANE)

As a courtesy to other readers, please do not remove these or any other books from seminar rooms. If you must do so for xeroxing, please return them personally as soon as you are finished. Otherwise it may take a day or more before the book is returned to the room by the library staff.

As you gather books and articles to read for your research, evaluate them by asking yourself the following questions: Who wrote this, what can you learn about the author (what are his/her/their credentials -- education, institutional affiliation, publications, etc.), is the material up to date, where was the work published and by whom, is the publication subject to review, etc.? What is the subject matter discussed, what are the perspectives or biases of the author(s), can the information be checked for accuracy by comparing it with other examples or data, etc.? N.B. The speed with which books and articles go out of date varies from field to field and subject to subject. Some publications from the late 19th and early 20th century are still extremely useful (e.g. the Bible commentaries of S.R. Driver), while others -- especially in areas of Near Eastern studies directly dependent on ongoing archaeological discoveries, such as Assyriology -- are too out of date to be reliable. Before relying on works older than ca. 1950, check with me (especially if you add such works to your bibliography after I have reviewed your prospectus). And beware of the following: when books that are old enough to have lost their copyright are reprinted, publishers sometimes indicate only the date of the reprint and disguise the actual age of the book. Check carefully (ask the reference librarians how to do so).

Be very cautious in using websites. Some contain reliable information while others do not. Websites can be created by anybody and, unlike books and articles, they usually do not undergo peer review or even editorial review. Use them to lead you to bibliography and other printed information that you can verify; do not rely on them for matters of fact or interpretation unless the source is verifiably competent and reliable. Ask the same kinds of questions about the website as you would about printed works: can you identify its author(s)? What are his/her/their credentials, how up-to-date is the material, what are the biases or perspective of the author(s), the accuracy of the material, etc.? In any case, before citing websites in a papers, clear it with me. For suggestions on how to evaluate internet resources, see the links given at the Jewish Studies website at http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/jwst/link.htm for links to: "Evaluating Internet Research Sources" and "Evaluation of Information Sources."

Papers are due on the date assigned (NO EXTENSIONS)

After the paper is completed, write an abstract of no more than one page (double spaced) describing the problem or subject you have addressed, the evidence you used as the basis of your work, your method of analysis, and your conclusions. Place the abstract at the beginning of the paper, after the title page.

To ensure that the effort you invest in the content of your paper is matched by an accurate and presentable physical format, follow the guidelines about format, footnotes, etc. in any of the manuals listed above, and check to be sure that you do the following (credit will be deducted for omissions and carelessness in these areas, or else papers will be returned unread and a grade of INC assigned until the paper is corrected):

    Double space
   Subdivide the paper into separate sections, each with its own heading (this is very important because it helps you focus and organize your thoughts and helps the reader follow the development of your argument)
    Include endnotes or footnotes, and a bibliography
    Number the pages (with some word processors this is not automatic and requires an extra step)
    Proofread CAREFULLY for spelling and grammar (do not rely exclusively on your word-processor's spell checker and grammar checker for this).
    Indicate, before the first footnote, which manual you have followed for format
   Cite (in parentheses) the chapter and verse number(s) in which each Biblical phenomenon to which you refer appears
    Double check all references and page numbers cited
    Staple the paper together or place it in a heavy paper binder (no plastic binders).
    Print and keep an extra copy at the same time you print the copy you hand in; originals sometimes get lost.

When using a word-processor, take precautions to prevent loss of what you have written. Remember to SAVE frequently as you type (at least after every paragraph) and, at the end of every session print out and save what you have typed, and then copy everything onto a back-up disk.

Your grade depends on the clarity and quality of your writing as well as on content. Above, I ask you to read a manual on writing term papers. It's also valuable to read guides to English usage so that you can express yourself clearly and use the language properly. Good guides range from Strunk & White's brief Elements of Style to such weighty tomes as Fowler's Dictionary of Modern English Usage or The New Fowler's Modern English Usage, which are a joy to read. For some web-accessible guides, see http://www.library.upenn.edu/resources/reference/general/style.html and http://www.bartleby.com/usage/

Here are some examples of the kinds of poor and careless usage that I have encountered in recent years:

Misplaced possessive apostrophes, that is, using ---'s instead of s' for plurals (e.g., saying "the Israelite's" when you mean "the Israelites' "). Even worse is simply using apostrophes when no possessive is intended, e.g., "the Israelite's" when you mean "the Israelites." These errors are, sadly, becoming increasingly common -- and they won't be caught by your spellchecker!

Using "may" when "might" is required, when you are referring to a hypothetical consequence that actually did not take place. For example, it is wrong to say "had John not been killed, he may have survived the war," or "had Deborah studied for the exam she may have passed the course." "Might" should be used in both cases. "Might" is the past tense of "may" and, when referring to things that never happened, it expresses the subjunctive mood. In the past -- before anybody knew what actually happened -- it remained conceivable that John had survived, or that Deborah had passed her exam; at that point it would have been proper to say that John "may" have survived or Deborah "may" have passed. But once we know that they did not, it can no longer be said that they "may" have, only that had things been otherwise, they "might" have.

Using "infer" when you mean "imply". "Infer" means "to derive by reasoning or implication, to conclude from facts or premises, e.g. "we see smoke and infer fire;" "from your smile I infer that you're pleased." "Imply" means to indicate indirectly or by allusion, suggest, intimate, e.g. "your yawn implies (not: infers) that you are bored;" "the candidate's remarks implied (not: inferred) that his opponent is a crook."

Saying "I feel badly" when you mean that you feel sorry, regret. The proper form is "I feel bad." "Feel badly" is correct only if you mean to say that your emotions or sense of touch are impaired.

Saying "could care less," meaning "don't care." The proper expression is "couldn't care less" (that is, "I care so little that I couldn't possibly care any less than I already do").
Turning two-word phrases into compound words (e.g., saying "anytime" for "any time," "alot for "a lot," or using "breakdown" as a verb, instead of "break down")

And vice-versa, making a single word into two, such as "in tact" (for "intact")

Failing to capitalize "God" or "G-d," or Bible. Incidentally, although the spelling "G-d" is acceptable, it is not necessary. Although many editors prefer not to capitalize "Biblical," the logic escapes me; since "Bible" is a proper noun and is capitalized, its adjective should likewise be capitalized, as all agree should be done with "Koranic" and "Vedic."

Confusing similar words, e.g., "affect"/"effect."

Confusing "i.e." and "e.g." The former means "that is;" the latter means "for example." Both abbreviations should be followed by a comma.

Using "prophesize" as the verb for uttering a prophecy; the verb is "prophesy" (with an s)

Using "that" for "who," e.g., "the man that came for dinner." Use "who" for people.

Using "however" (in the sense "nevertheless") as a substitute for, and with the same punctuation as, "but." When used at the beginning or middle of a sentence, "however" it is always followed by a comma; in the middle of a sentence it is usually preceded by a semicolon, less often by a comma. Hence do not write: "He loves sweets however he avoids them to keep his weight down," or even "He loves sweets, however he avoids them to keep his weight down," but rather: (a) He loves sweets; however, he avoids them to keep his weight down," (b) He loves sweets. However, he avoids them to keep his weight down," or (c) "He loves sweets but he avoids them to keep his weight down." The rules for "however" also apply to "nevertheless" and "nonetheless."

Using plurals as singulars, e.g., "criteria," "data," "media," "graffiti." The singulars are "criterion," "datum," "medium," and "graffito." (FYI: "media" is short for the "mass media," the media or vehicles of mass communication, such as radio, television, newspapers, etc. Each of these is a medium of communication; together they are "the media"). Hence one says: "by that criterion (not "criteria"), it was a good paper;" "the data clearly show (not "shows") that...;" "the media report (not "reports") that the President said...;" "somebody wrote a graffito (not "graffiti") on the wall that says..." Similarly, "data" is plural (the singular is "datum"); hence: "the data are" (not "is"), "the date indicate" ("not "indicates").

Be sure to follow William Safire's rules for editing:
* Don't use no double negatives.
* Proofread carefully to see if you any words out.
* Take the bull by the hand and avoid mixed metaphors.
* If I've told you once, I've told you a thousand times, resist hyperbole.
* "Avoid over use of 'quotation "marks."'"
* Avoid commas, that are not necessary.
* If you reread your work, you will find on rereading that a great deal of repetition can be avoided by rereading and editing.
* Avoid cliches like the plague.
* Never use a long word when a diminutive one will do.
* Avoid colloquial stuff.