Patricia Munter
Dr. Wesley Pitts
MCE Education 636
5 January 2008
ANNOTATED
BIBLIOGRAPHY OF PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING RESEARCH
I
am interested in the topic of problem-based research, which is a teaching
method that promises to increase student engagement, motivation and
achievement. Problem-based learning
(PBL) is a type of case study method of teaching. The method initially used a strict format at when
introduced at McMaster University’s medical school in Ontario, Canada .It has since been modified to describe teaching
using stories: factual, fictional or a combination. Role playing, politics and ethics are often
components of the case study approach. The
following bibliography addresses the history of PBL, examples of PBL lessons
for secondary science, PBL’s value as an inquiry approach, classroom management
for PBL, and research on problem-solving in general. The publications are divided into sections showing
relevance to: general information on PBL, specific classroom applications of
PBL and background information on cognitive theory and problem solving. Within
each section, the entries are in order of their publication date.
General
Information on PBL
Blumenfeld,
P.C., Soloway, E., Marx, R.W., Krajcik, J. S. Guzdial, M., & Palincsar, A. (1991). Motivating project-based
learning: Sustaining the doing, supporting
the learning. Educational Psychologist, 26(3, 4), 369-398.
This article proposes that project-based
learning that increases student engagement using cognitive and metacognitive
skills along with the production of an artifact is a promising way to promote
student motivation in the classroom. The
degree to which a project sustains student interest is influenced by the
following factors: novelty of task, authenticity and perceived value of the
problem, challenging nature of problem, choice in how work may be completed,
opportunity to work with others and closure (creation of an artifact). The authors contend that guidelines for
exactly what subject matter students find interesting or useful enough to work
on for a long period of time has not been adequately researched, but research
has shown that choice and control by students enhances motivation. A challenging problem is motivating, but if
the students do not possess necessary skills and knowledge to complete the
exercise, they may become frustrated.
The authors state that the teacher’s motivation for project completion
must be sustained as well as the students’.
This means that the teacher must have the necessary skills to support
the students as well as a constructivist approach to teaching and learning.
The
article gives research backed information on the general topic of project-based
learning and also mentions areas in which future research could be
considered. Student motivation is of concern
to teachers, and project based learning is a good solution. The complexity of an authentic problem makes
it interesting to a student, but can also be a source of frustration if the
teacher is not able to move students forward using proper management skills or
scaffolding techniques. Teachers need to
be able to model thinking and problem solving skills and need to be able to
release responsibility to the students.
Stepen,
W. & Gallagher, S. (1993).
Problem-based learning: As authentic as it gets. Educational Leadership, 50(7), 25-28.
This article describes an initiative by the
Illinois Science and Mathematics
Academy (IMSA) to promote problem-based
learning in the science curriculum in order to increase student achievement and
motivation. In a week-long summer
program, high school students were challenged to develop a solution to a real
world problem involving storage of radioactive thorium in
The
authors maintain that the central focus in this type of learning activity is an
“ill-structured” problem. The messy
nature of a problem, with needed research contributions from the political and
ethical realms, shows students that solutions to problems are often the best
fit to a set of constraints that one has to work with. The students take ownership of the solution,
because their answer may differ from other students’ answers, and they may need
to debate or defend their solution.
Fay, G. (2006). Using a cycle to find solutions. The
Science Teacher, 73(8), 44-47.
This
article was part of an issue highlighting the theme of problem-based
learning. The author describes a design model used
originally in an engineering class at
A
design model such as this one gives students a better perspective on the
processing skills that scientists and engineers use to solve problems. The article describes in a step by step
fashion how to effectively use this model in a classroom. The author notes that this pedagogy appeals
to multiple learning styles and is especially useful for the nontraditional
learner. The approach is presented
rather succinctly, but there are resources listed for additional examples using
this model for a variety of disciplines.
Herreid,
C.F., (2007). The death of problem-based
learning? In C. Herreid (Ed.) Start with a story: The case study
method of
teaching college science
(pp. 355-359).
In this article the author gives a history of
PBL and how it has changed since its inception.
PBL has its roots in the education of medical students at
The
point that the author makes is that in the literature when PBL is mentioned, it
may simply mean a case study method of learning. It probably is not describing the strict
format that was once indicative of the model.
The model has changed over time, but the modifications have not taken
away from the power of the basic premise.
Classroom
Applications of PBL
Llewellyn,
D. (2005). Teaching high school science
through inquiry: A case study approach.
Press.
Although this book is a practical guide for
using inquiry in the high school classroom, it starts with an overview of the
philosophical foundation of inquiry science - constructivism. The historical
perspectives of constructivism are discussed as well as the impact that
constructivism has had on educational reforms.
The conceptual change model, case studies, metacognition and the 5E learning
cycle are covered as important contributions to inquiry-based teaching methods.
The
philosophical underpinnings of the inquiry method are important, because in order to be an
effective teacher using inquiry one needs to be familiar with the epistemology
that guides the teaching process. This book develops an argument for inquiry
and gives many practical examples and applications of inquiry in action in the
typical classroom. Classroom management
for an inquiry classroom is addressed with emphasis on ways to improve student
ownership of learning and to effectively assess the performance of
students. This book is a valuable, well
written, practical guide for a secondary teacher wishing to enhance student
learning in science.
Eisenkraft,
A., Heltzel C., Johnson, D. & Radcliffe, B. (2006). Artist as chemist. The Science
Teacher, 73(8), 33-37.
This article describes a PBL unit that was
offered as a professional development to teachers in the summer of 2004 at
The
article is a summary or overview of the PBL unit. The author Arthur Eisenkraft is associated
with the Active Chemistry series (Herff-Jones publisher), a curriculum which
was funded by the NSF that focuses on problem based learning. A much more
detailed set of instructions would be needed to actually teach this unit. This can be found in the Active Chemistry
textbook.
Barell, J., (2007). Problem-based
learning: An inquiry approach.
This book has general appeal for teachers of
all subjects in any grade to incorporate PBL strategies in their classes. The book offers practical guidelines for
structuring an inquiry based activity such as PBL. Using a variety of organizational, analytical
and reflective techniques, students journal, discuss and critique the
information they have researched. Many
of the educational strategies the author proposes are not strictly PBL
specific. Using graphic organizers,
small group inquiry, whole class discussion, reflective journals and
presentations support PBL, and the author reviews these techniques and shows
how they are best integrated into the PBL format.
This
book is concerned mainly with the mechanics of organizing information and
documenting learning when using PBL. It
gives criteria for constructing an effective case study for PBL, but these are
not specific for secondary science content, and so other sources may be better
for inspiration in constructing a scenario.
The emphasis on motivating processing skills in students is the appeal
of this book. It also contains
assessment guidelines and rubrics, making it a good resource for planning and
implementing a PBL unit.
Herreid,
C. F., (2007). Cooking with Betty
Crocker: A recipe for case study
writing. In C. Herreid (Ed.) Start with a
story:
The case study method of teaching college science (pp. 355-359).
In this chapter, a simplified approach to
writing case studies in general and some tips for writing specifically for the
PBL format are given. The author gives
instructions on decisions that must be made on topic selection, empathetic
character selection, and pedagogical direction.
A good case study needs to elicit student interest and also maintain a
structure that will support the teaching goals of the instructor. In a PBL format, the case is presented in two
or three parts, with students doing research before getting further
instructions. An example of the case
study writing process is given in narrative form highlighting the decisions
made by a teacher creating a case study of the
This
article is especially useful to a teacher wishing to try the PBL approach for
the first time. The author purposely
simplifies the method in order for a first-timer to experience success in a
method that he clearly champions as effective.
Since the method encourages focusing on topics in which ethical, social
and political contributions are important considerations, he gives directions
on how to use these as points of interest yet keep the science instruction as
the main objective.
Osorio,
V. K. L., Tiedemann, P. W., &
literary text. Journal of Chemical Education, 84(5),
775-778.
This article describes a PBL activity
although it is not specifically categorized as such. The authors took a literary text, that is an
autobiography of an Italian chemist and concentration camp survivor, which was
written with each of its chapters named for an element of the periodic
table. Students were asked to read an
excerpt from a chapter titled “Potassium” and to research answers to questions
concerning the chemical principles that are mentioned in the reading.
Although
not specifically written as a PBL activity, this case study approach has
elements that could be used to start to create one. The students are asked to research chemical content
in the chapter which included study of the chemical and physical properties of
potassium. Differences and similarities
of potassium and sodium were also investigated.
The presentation of the problem allowed students to integrate a number
of important topics which might normally be presented in separate lessons. Student feedback was reported a positive in
the report for both interest and satisfaction in understanding the concepts.
Cognitive
Theory and Inquiry Instruction
Frederiksen,
N. (1984). Implications of cognitive
theory for instruction in problem solving.
Review of Educational
Research, 54(3), 363-407.
This article is from the perspective of an
educational researcher and it presents research on instruction in problem
solving. An introduction is given on the
way the brain processes information: using a sensory buffer, long term memory
and short term or working memory. Nodes
are defined as chunks of information and are instrumental in permitting automatic
information processing, which takes much less effort and working memory but
requires a great deal of practice to create. The author contends that problem
solving skills can be taught, but the types of problems, either well structured
or ill structured give students different skill sets. The well structured problem (that which would
be seen in a math class) would not have skills that would transfer to other
disciplines. An ill structured problem
would require a more generalist approach and the skills may be more likely to
transfer to other disciplines.
The
discussion by the author on the use of well structured versus ill structured
problems is relevant to a discussion of PBL.
If one defines the role of education as teaching general problem solving
skills, the research shows that the use of ill structured problems will give
students more practice in this type of skill.
Ill structured problems generally require some research into alternative
solutions and are open to interpretation for the best solution. The goal of
teaching generalist problem solving skills can be addressed using PBL.
Nurrenbern,
S. & Pickering, M. (1987). Concept
learning versus problem solving: Is
there a difference? Journal of
Chemical
Education, 64(6), 508-510.
The authors studied student performance on
tests of quantitative and conceptual understandings of chemistry at the college
freshman level. They found that students
performed statistically better on tests using quantitative skills. The major focus of textbooks and educators
has been on numerical problems as opposed to nonmathematical conceptual
problems. Researchers have argued that
teaching students to solve chemistry problems does not necessarily teach them
about the nature of matter.
The
types of problems most chemistry students are required to solve are of the type
known as a well structured problem.
There is a single correct response and a simple plug and chug method to
solving. PBL may be a vehicle to
integrate the two different educational objectives of numerical problems
solving and conceptual understanding.
Blosser,
P. E. (1988) Teaching problem solving-secondary school science. EMI-ERIC Clearinghouse for Science,
Mathematics,
and Environmental Education 2.
This digest summarizes research articles
written between 1982 and 1988 that address problem solving skills of secondary
school science students. Experts
recognized that problem solving skills are important goals of a science
education. Problem solving skills utilize
higher level thinking skills; students are required to analyze, synthesize and
evaluate in order to devise solutions.
Research has shown that many students are not in the formal operational
stage described by Piaget, and therefore lack the proportional reasoning and
logical-deductive reasoning necessary to achieve success in problem
solving. Research also showed that math
anxiety of students is a factor in substandard performance. For students who experience difficulties, it
is suggested that teachers use more visual materials that are not mathematical
in nature.
Teachers
need to be aware of the diverse abilities of their students and the need to
explicitly instruct students in problem solving skills. Chemistry teachers in particular focus on
numerical problems in high school chemistry.
The approach needs to be adjusted for the lower level student. Teachers also need to realize that exclusive
focus on mathematical problem solving may take away from other educational
objectives, such as understanding the nature of matter. Realizing the diversity of skills that
students possess when starting a chemistry class should make teachers see the
need to adjust instruction to meet educational goals.
Kagan,
D. M. (1988). Teaching as clinical
problem solving: A critical examination of the analogy and its implications.
Review of Educational Research, 58(4),
482-505.
This article is concerned with describing a
teacher’s actions in a classroom, that is, the decisions and judgments they
make as they conduct class. Researchers
originally tried to compare teaching to the skills a doctor exhibits during
clinical diagnosis, the formation of hypotheses with resultant decisions made
as more and more clues are added. It was
found by researchers that teachers actually made few decisions as they taught;
the decisions that were made were mostly concerned with discipline issues. It was found that many teachers operated on
“automatic pilot”. When an expert
teacher teaches, the description of the decisions made by the teacher follows a
hierarchical pattern, with global issues refined into very specific issues and
then shifts back and forth as needed. The patterns the teacher follows are cued
by time constraints and feedback from students.
The author states that the description of what happens in a classroom
more closely resembles art than science, as it is a complex performance.
The
actions of the teacher in a classroom can be described in a flow chart as was
done in this article. The researcher
makes sense of the teacher’s actions by showing a sequencing of the complex
interactions. The analysis shows that
the schemata that teachers require to be effective take some time to attain;
there is something to be said for experience.
Perkins, D.B. & Salomon, G. (1989). Are
cognitive skills context-bound? Educational Researcher 18(1), 16-25.
The authors of this article are concerned
with the question of how to best prepare students to become effective problem
solvers. A debate between a strong
generalist position and a strong specialist position has been reported in the
literature. The authors note the
oversimplification of these positions and suggest that a synthesized position
should be considered. In 1957, the
mathematician Gyorgy Polya argued that the heuristics of mathematical problem
solving could be applied to other types of problem solving in unrelated
disciplines. Subsequent research did not
support Polya’s position. The article gives an overview of the research that
has been conducted since that time and how educational researchers have refined
and debated Polya’s argument. In order
for transfer to take place, research has shown that certain conditions need to
be met; there are classroom practices that can help enhance general cognitive
skills. The best approach calls for mixing generality and context-specifics in
the instruction.
The
article does not cite problem-based learning specifically, but PBL does have
both aspects of context-based knowledge and general problem solving strategies
as important components of the method. It
is mainly through metacognitive practices that students learn to actively
engage in thinking about the logic behind a mathematical strategy or actively
self-monitor reading strategies and are then able to retain and transfer the
skill to other disciplines. Metacognitve practices are built into PBL, and so
should foster not only the context specific but also general problem solving
knowledge of the participants.
Sanger,
M.J.,
motion have an effect? Journal of Chemical Education, 84(5), 875-879.
This article is a response to an article
written by Nurrenbern and Pickering which was published in 1987. (Article is
part of this bibliography). In the 1987
study, research was conducted using static pictures of models of atoms or
molecules and students were assessed on their conceptual knowledge. The 2007 report raised the issue of student
understanding being affected by misunderstanding of the diagrams because
kinetic motion was not represented. A study was conducted comparing student
responses before and after viewing animations that depicted the molecular
motions of gases. Statistically
significant improvement in performance by the students was seen. The researchers concluded that prior poor
performance was due to problems with the validity of the questions using the
static models.
The
article raises questions about assessment validity especially in a multiple
choice format. These types of questions
require convergent answers and without any explanation or metacognition by the
student, the teacher can erroneously conclude that students lack understanding
of the chemistry concept, when in fact the student lack understanding of the
question. It may be that in a PBL format, the teacher can better assess where a
student’s misconceptions originate.